Sport Sciences Research institute Sport Psychology Studies 2345-2978 13 49 2024 09 22 Psychometric Properties of the Psychological Flexibility Questionnaire in Athletes: The Persian Version Psychometric Properties of the Psychological Flexibility Questionnaire in Athletes: The Persian Version 1 16 4322 10.22089/spsyj.2022.11527.2247 FA Lily Rahbari Fard MSc in Motor Behavior, Department of Physical Education, North Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Tehran, Iran 0009-0007-6106-4103 Mahtab Arabi Department of Physical Education, North Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran 0000-0001-8464-8055 Amir Shams Department of Cognitive and Behavioral Sciences in Sport, Sport Sciences Research Institute, Tehran, Iran 0000-0001-9931-9158 Journal Article 2021 10 26 Background and Purpose Psychological resilience is crucial in sports because athletes constantly face a variety of stressors, anxiety, and stress (Moore, 2009). Johles et al. (2020) conducted a study to address this issue by examining the psychometrics of a new scale of psychological resilience among competitive athletes. However, it is important to note the limitations of this scale, as it may not be suitable for sports conditions and only measures general psychological flexibility across various aspects of life (Bond et al., 2013). Therefore, the present study aims to determine the validity and reliability of the Persian version of the psychological flexibility questionnaire in athletes. Material and Methods The statistical population of the present study included male and female athletes participating in various team and individual sports at different levels. A total of 329 subjects were involved in this study, with 319 individuals participating in confirmatory factor validity and internal stability assessments through completion of the questionnaire. An additional 10 individuals were included in the initial pilot phase. The questionnaire used in this study was the Psychological Flexibility in Athletes questionnaire developed by Johles et al. (2020). This questionnaire consists of 12 items organized into three factors, with each factor containing four items. The factors assess athletes' thoughts, sports anxiety, and feelings, with each item being scored on a five-point Likert scale ranging from zero to five. Following data collection, the information was analyzed using descriptive statistics to calculate frequency distributions, confirmatory factor analysis employing structural equations to validate the questionnaire factors, Cronbach's alpha coefficient to assess internal consistency, and Pearson and intra-class correlation coefficients for test-retest reliability of the questionnaire. Results A total of 319 female (158) and male (161) athletes at both professional and amateur levels across 15 individual sports and 10 team sports participated in this study. The ICC internal correlation coefficient for relative reliability of the test-retest was calculated. The questionnaire's total score indicated excellent reliability, with the inter-class correlation coefficient showing reliability between test times. It is important to note that the results of the descriptive and analytical parts of the confirmatory factor analysis do not include subjects from the pilot study. The Pearson correlation coefficient and internal correlation coefficient in SPSS software were utilized to evaluate the reliability of the Persian version of the psychological resilience questionnaire using the retest method. The assessments were conducted 2 weeks apart. The ICC internal correlation coefficient for the relative reliability of the test-retest score indicated high reliability of the questionnaire. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated acceptable factor validity of the research questionnaire. Conclusion The aim of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Persian version of the Psychological Flexibility Questionnaire in athletes. Overall, the results of this study are positively associated with high levels of psychological resilience scores linked to depression and anxiety, as confirmed in the study by Johles et al. (2020). Previous studies have also shown that increased mental flexibility can lead to improved athletic performance (Lundgren et al., 2019). Experiences that increase athletes' ability to tolerate unpleasant thoughts and feelings may facilitate value-oriented behaviors and focus on task-related cues, ultimately increasing the likelihood of performance improvement (Josephson et al., 2019). In conclusion, this study presents a scale for measuring psychological resilience in a wide range of athletes with promising psychometric properties. Therefore, the new psychometrics of the Persian version of the Psychological Flexibility Questionnaire in athletes can be a feasible and practical scale that complements psychometrics in the field of sports psychology for the future. Keywords: Psychometric Properties, Psychological Flexibility, Performance, Quality of Life. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First author: Data collection and authorship of the introduction; Second and Third author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology, and data analysis. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the athletes who cooperated in the present research. Background and Purpose Psychological resilience is crucial in sports because athletes constantly face a variety of stressors, anxiety, and stress (Moore, 2009). Johles et al. (2020) conducted a study to address this issue by examining the psychometrics of a new scale of psychological resilience among competitive athletes. However, it is important to note the limitations of this scale, as it may not be suitable for sports conditions and only measures general psychological flexibility across various aspects of life (Bond et al., 2013). Therefore, the present study aims to determine the validity and reliability of the Persian version of the psychological flexibility questionnaire in athletes. Material and Methods The statistical population of the present study included male and female athletes participating in various team and individual sports at different levels. A total of 329 subjects were involved in this study, with 319 individuals participating in confirmatory factor validity and internal stability assessments through completion of the questionnaire. An additional 10 individuals were included in the initial pilot phase. The questionnaire used in this study was the Psychological Flexibility in Athletes questionnaire developed by Johles et al. (2020). This questionnaire consists of 12 items organized into three factors, with each factor containing four items. The factors assess athletes' thoughts, sports anxiety, and feelings, with each item being scored on a five-point Likert scale ranging from zero to five. Following data collection, the information was analyzed using descriptive statistics to calculate frequency distributions, confirmatory factor analysis employing structural equations to validate the questionnaire factors, Cronbach's alpha coefficient to assess internal consistency, and Pearson and intra-class correlation coefficients for test-retest reliability of the questionnaire. Results A total of 319 female (158) and male (161) athletes at both professional and amateur levels across 15 individual sports and 10 team sports participated in this study. The ICC internal correlation coefficient for relative reliability of the test-retest was calculated. The questionnaire's total score indicated excellent reliability, with the inter-class correlation coefficient showing reliability between test times. It is important to note that the results of the descriptive and analytical parts of the confirmatory factor analysis do not include subjects from the pilot study. The Pearson correlation coefficient and internal correlation coefficient in SPSS software were utilized to evaluate the reliability of the Persian version of the psychological resilience questionnaire using the retest method. The assessments were conducted 2 weeks apart. The ICC internal correlation coefficient for the relative reliability of the test-retest score indicated high reliability of the questionnaire. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated acceptable factor validity of the research questionnaire. Conclusion The aim of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Persian version of the Psychological Flexibility Questionnaire in athletes. Overall, the results of this study are positively associated with high levels of psychological resilience scores linked to depression and anxiety, as confirmed in the study by Johles et al. (2020). Previous studies have also shown that increased mental flexibility can lead to improved athletic performance (Lundgren et al., 2019). Experiences that increase athletes' ability to tolerate unpleasant thoughts and feelings may facilitate value-oriented behaviors and focus on task-related cues, ultimately increasing the likelihood of performance improvement (Josephson et al., 2019). In conclusion, this study presents a scale for measuring psychological resilience in a wide range of athletes with promising psychometric properties. Therefore, the new psychometrics of the Persian version of the Psychological Flexibility Questionnaire in athletes can be a feasible and practical scale that complements psychometrics in the field of sports psychology for the future. Keywords: Psychometric Properties, Psychological Flexibility, Performance, Quality of Life. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First author: Data collection and authorship of the introduction; Second and Third author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology, and data analysis. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the athletes who cooperated in the present research.

https://spsyj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4322_31a262d6247f3513b19d1149102e116d.pdf

Sport Sciences Research institute Sport Psychology Studies 2345-2978 13 49 2024 09 22 Effect of Preferred Asynchronous Music on Flow States and Learning the Volleyball Service in Young Semi-Skilled Female Athletes Effect of Preferred Asynchronous Music on Flow States and Learning the Volleyball Service in Young Semi-Skilled Female Athletes 17 30 4305 10.22089/spsyj.2024.12782.2313 FA Fateme Heidarinezhad Department of Physical Education, Faculty of Psychology, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran. 0009-0008-1653-1128 Leyli Khavari Khorasani Department of Physical Education, Faculty of Psychology, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran. 0000-0002-6505-4515 Hossein Samadi Department of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Psychology and Sciences Educational, University of Yazd, Yazd, Iran 0000-0002-1073-3393 Journal Article 2022 07 20 Background and Purpose Flow state is a crucial factor in achieving peak performance, characterized by conscious attention, lack of judgment, and behavioral flexibility. Research and theoretical discussions suggest a two-way relationship between flow and performance (Elvira et al, 2015). In recent years, there has been a focus on improving physical performance through extensive investigations and experimental studies on individual psychological factors. Weinberg and Gould (2014) highlight that psychological factor are the primary reason for fluctuations in sports performance, with various psychological factors influencing athletes' performance. Motivation is a key factor affecting performance, with changes in motivation leading to performance improvements, depending on the skill involved. Motivation is influenced by various factors such as task importance, audience presence, rewards, feedback, physical activity, and music, all of which are considered significant motivational factors (Torabi et al., 2011). The role of music in enhancing sports performance has gained attention recently. While few studies have explored flow during performance with music, the positive impact of flow on athletic performance has been demonstrated. Shallis and Norman's (1986) cognitive model of behavioral control presents a cognitive theory on the relationship between music, flow state, and performance. The theory emphasizes the role of environmental factors in shaping the flow experience, aligning with Csiksent Mihaly's (1975) model of flow experience, which describes flow as a balance between skill and challenge. Different types of music can be used as external stimuli to manipulate psychological variables and the nervous system before, during, and after practice and performance. In general, many individuals may experience a decline in performance during competition due to increased environmental stimulation, leading to irreversible mental damage. Using music as an energizing factor to create motivation can help learners adapt to real conditions. While research on the impact of music on sports skills has primarily focused on performance, the retention and transfer of skills are equally important. The lack of research in Iran highlights the need to enhance athlete performance and motivation in various sports through such studies. Given the unique effects of different types of music on individuals, this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of non-synchronous music on flow state and learning the volleyball serve in young female semi-skilled athletes. Material and Methods This research is practical in terms of purpose and semi-experimental in terms of implementation. Thirty female physical education students, age between 20-24 years, were selected and randomly divided into three groups: fast music, slow music, and control. After the pre-test, the acquisition phase consisted of four blocks of ten volleyball serve attempts in each session held over 4 weeks (3 sessions per week). The final training session included the acquisition test, followed by the retention and transfer test 48 hours later. Participants used the 36-item flow questionnaire (Jackson and Marsh, 1996), trait-state anxiety questionnaire (Spielberg, 1970), and AAHPERD volleyball serve test (1984) throughout the research stages. Statistical analysis was conducted at two levels: descriptive and inferential. Mean values and standard deviations were used at the descriptive level, while one-way analysis of variance tests with repeated measures were employed at the inferential level to compare groups in the pre-test, post-test, retention, and transfer stages. Result Results showed that the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance were met. Bonferroni's post hoc test was used to check for differences between groups, with a significance level of 0.05. The results indicated no significant difference in average serve skill among training groups in the pre-test, post-test, retention, and transfer stages (P≥0.05). However, there was a significant difference in the mean mental performance of serve skill in the fast music group across all stages (P≤0.05). The average flow of serve skill in the slow music group did not show a significant difference in different test stages (P≥0.05). Further analysis revealed that flow scores in the acquisition test differed significantly from those in the retention and transfer stages (P≤0.05). Additionally, there was no significant difference in average serve skill or flow among training groups in the acquisition, retention, and transfer stages (P≥0.05). Conclusion The findings of the present study show that non-synchronous fast and slow music do not have a significant effect on the learning of the volleyball serve skill of semi-skilled young female athletes, and no significant difference was observed in the serve scores between the two groups. The effect of music itself can act as a distracting factor (Hagen et al., 2013). Exciting music can sometimes disturb a person's calm, while soothing music can increase arousal, bringing the person down and hindering dynamism and movement, both of which can harm performance. The lack of influence of music can be attributed to factors such as the nature of the desired skill (single and continuous), the type of music used in terms of beat and the target community, whether the sport is group or individual, the nature of the sport (competitive and recreational), the amount of practice, motivational factors, or even different cultural responses to music. Another finding of this research shows that fast asynchronous music has a positive effect on the flow state of young women's volleyball serve skills. However, no significant difference was observed in the flow scores in the slow music group and between the two mentioned groups. The results of the research support the cognitive model of behavioral control by Norman and Challis (1986) to the extent that music creates a state that inhibits the control monitoring system. It should be noted that the mechanism by which musical interventions increase performance and experience of smooth performance is unknown. According to the findings of the present study, although the presentation of the motivational component (fast and slow non-synchronous music) did not affect the learning of volleyball serve skill, fast music increased the flow performance of the participants during the performance of volleyball serve skill. Additionally, no significant difference was observed between the three groups in the learning and flow state of volleyball serve skills. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First Second and author: Data collection, conceptualization and data analysis; Second and Third author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the athletes who cooperated in the present research. Background and Purpose Flow state is a crucial factor in achieving peak performance, characterized by conscious attention, lack of judgment, and behavioral flexibility. Research and theoretical discussions suggest a two-way relationship between flow and performance (Elvira et al, 2015). In recent years, there has been a focus on improving physical performance through extensive investigations and experimental studies on individual psychological factors. Weinberg and Gould (2014) highlight that psychological factor are the primary reason for fluctuations in sports performance, with various psychological factors influencing athletes' performance. Motivation is a key factor affecting performance, with changes in motivation leading to performance improvements, depending on the skill involved. Motivation is influenced by various factors such as task importance, audience presence, rewards, feedback, physical activity, and music, all of which are considered significant motivational factors (Torabi et al., 2011). The role of music in enhancing sports performance has gained attention recently. While few studies have explored flow during performance with music, the positive impact of flow on athletic performance has been demonstrated. Shallis and Norman's (1986) cognitive model of behavioral control presents a cognitive theory on the relationship between music, flow state, and performance. The theory emphasizes the role of environmental factors in shaping the flow experience, aligning with Csiksent Mihaly's (1975) model of flow experience, which describes flow as a balance between skill and challenge. Different types of music can be used as external stimuli to manipulate psychological variables and the nervous system before, during, and after practice and performance. In general, many individuals may experience a decline in performance during competition due to increased environmental stimulation, leading to irreversible mental damage. Using music as an energizing factor to create motivation can help learners adapt to real conditions. While research on the impact of music on sports skills has primarily focused on performance, the retention and transfer of skills are equally important. The lack of research in Iran highlights the need to enhance athlete performance and motivation in various sports through such studies. Given the unique effects of different types of music on individuals, this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of non-synchronous music on flow state and learning the volleyball serve in young female semi-skilled athletes. Material and Methods This research is practical in terms of purpose and semi-experimental in terms of implementation. Thirty female physical education students, age between 20-24 years, were selected and randomly divided into three groups: fast music, slow music, and control. After the pre-test, the acquisition phase consisted of four blocks of ten volleyball serve attempts in each session held over 4 weeks (3 sessions per week). The final training session included the acquisition test, followed by the retention and transfer test 48 hours later. Participants used the 36-item flow questionnaire (Jackson and Marsh, 1996), trait-state anxiety questionnaire (Spielberg, 1970), and AAHPERD volleyball serve test (1984) throughout the research stages. Statistical analysis was conducted at two levels: descriptive and inferential. Mean values and standard deviations were used at the descriptive level, while one-way analysis of variance tests with repeated measures were employed at the inferential level to compare groups in the pre-test, post-test, retention, and transfer stages. Result Results showed that the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance were met. Bonferroni's post hoc test was used to check for differences between groups, with a significance level of 0.05. The results indicated no significant difference in average serve skill among training groups in the pre-test, post-test, retention, and transfer stages (P≥0.05). However, there was a significant difference in the mean mental performance of serve skill in the fast music group across all stages (P≤0.05). The average flow of serve skill in the slow music group did not show a significant difference in different test stages (P≥0.05). Further analysis revealed that flow scores in the acquisition test differed significantly from those in the retention and transfer stages (P≤0.05). Additionally, there was no significant difference in average serve skill or flow among training groups in the acquisition, retention, and transfer stages (P≥0.05). Conclusion The findings of the present study show that non-synchronous fast and slow music do not have a significant effect on the learning of the volleyball serve skill of semi-skilled young female athletes, and no significant difference was observed in the serve scores between the two groups. The effect of music itself can act as a distracting factor (Hagen et al., 2013). Exciting music can sometimes disturb a person's calm, while soothing music can increase arousal, bringing the person down and hindering dynamism and movement, both of which can harm performance. The lack of influence of music can be attributed to factors such as the nature of the desired skill (single and continuous), the type of music used in terms of beat and the target community, whether the sport is group or individual, the nature of the sport (competitive and recreational), the amount of practice, motivational factors, or even different cultural responses to music. Another finding of this research shows that fast asynchronous music has a positive effect on the flow state of young women's volleyball serve skills. However, no significant difference was observed in the flow scores in the slow music group and between the two mentioned groups. The results of the research support the cognitive model of behavioral control by Norman and Challis (1986) to the extent that music creates a state that inhibits the control monitoring system. It should be noted that the mechanism by which musical interventions increase performance and experience of smooth performance is unknown. According to the findings of the present study, although the presentation of the motivational component (fast and slow non-synchronous music) did not affect the learning of volleyball serve skill, fast music increased the flow performance of the participants during the performance of volleyball serve skill. Additionally, no significant difference was observed between the three groups in the learning and flow state of volleyball serve skills. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First Second and author: Data collection, conceptualization and data analysis; Second and Third author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the athletes who cooperated in the present research.

https://spsyj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4305_d6cf4da5ced8580c991e16fb54faa1b6.pdf

Sport Sciences Research institute Sport Psychology Studies 2345-2978 13 49 2024 09 22 The Effect of Emotional Exhaustion and Academic Achievement Anxiety on Optimism and Academic Burnout The Effect of Emotional Exhaustion and Academic Achievement Anxiety on Optimism and Academic Burnout 31 44 4311 10.22089/spsyj.2024.15069.2407 FA Hassan Shafaei Department of Physical Rehabilitation, Massage and Health-Improving Physical Culture Named after I. M. Sarkizov-Serazini RSUFKSMiT, 105122 Moscow, Russia. 0000-0001-5802-3385 Sheida Ranjbari Department of Physical Education, Urmia Branch, Islamic Azad University, Urmia, Iran 0000-0002-8005-0715 Mansour Khalilzadeh Kouchameshki Department of Physical Education and sport science, Salmas Branch, Islamic Azad University, Salmas, Iran. 0000-0003-1173-3210 Mohammad Bagher Askarnia PhD in Sports Management, Department of Physical Education, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran 0009-0003-8852-0683 Journal Article 2023 06 13 Background and Purpose The interaction of students with education has been a concern of researchers, who have made extensive efforts to improve the educational conditions of students. Another important variable in the field of education is academic optimism, which refers to individual beliefs about capabilities, capacities, and internal potentials in the field of education. Emotional exhaustion is a factor that can affect aspects of students' education by influencing people's behavior. Emotional fatigue has been identified as a key dimension of depression, leading to a loss of energy, especially emotional energy in individuals. Additionally, anxiety related to academic progress is another important issue noted by researchers. Academic progress anxiety refers to individuals feeling anxious and concerned about their academic progress. Among students, student athletes are a significant group who are involved in both academic and sports activities simultaneously. Given the popularity of sports, it is expected that students may prioritize sports activities and pay less attention to academic matters. Material and Methods The current research is a descriptive study, classified as applied research, conducted in the field. The research method used is a survey for data collection. The statistical population consisted of male student athletes who regularly participated in sports teams, with no information available on their exact numbers. Based on available data, a sample of 200 male student athletes from various sports fields was identified.The research utilized four questionnaires: Emotional Fatigue Questionnaire: This questionnaire was used to measure emotional fatigue. This questionnaire consists of 8 five-choice questions, scored on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1=very low to 5=very high. Academic Progress Anxiety Questionnaire: Developed by Alpert and Haber, this questionnaire assesses students' anxiety related to academic progress. It contains 19 questions with 2 components of facilitating anxiety. Educational Optimism Questionnaire: The Sechennomoran et al. questionnaire was used to measure academic optimism. It includes 28 questions assessing students' trust in teachers (10 questions), academic emphasis (8 questions), and sense of identity towards school (10 questions). Academic Burnout Questionnaire: This questionnaire was used to evaluate academic burnout. It consists of 15 questions designed on a 5-point Likert scale, measuring academic fatigue (5 questions), academic disinterest (4 questions), and academic inefficiency (6 questions). For data analysis, the research employed the structural equations with partial least squares approach (SEM-PLS). Data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 20 and PLS version 3 software. Results In order to investigate the relationships between research variables, the structural equation method was used. To identify the distribution of the data in the present study, calculations of skewness and kurtosis were utilized. Based on the results of these indicators, it was determined that the data in the present study exhibited an abnormal distribution. The research model and t-statistics revealed that emotional exhaustion has a negative effect on academic optimism at a rate of -0.596 and a positive effect on academic burnout at a rate of 0.805. Additionally, academic achievement anxiety has a negative effect on academic optimism at -0.294 and a positive effect on academic burnout at 0.151. Discussion Paying attention to the academic factors of students has always been considered an important issue. The results of the present research indicated that emotional fatigue increases the level of academic burnout and decreases the level of academic optimism among student athletes. Therefore, focusing on addressing emotional fatigue can lead to improvements in academic burnout and academic optimism among student athletes. The findings of the study also revealed that academic achievement anxiety contributes to higher levels of academic burnout and lower levels of academic optimism in student athletes. Addressing academic achievement anxiety can serve as a foundation for enhancing conditions related to academic burnout and academic optimism among student athletes. Based on the results of this research, it is recommended that training courses for student athletes focus on enhancing their mental skills to reduce academic burnout and increase academic optimism. Additionally, providing spiritual support and identifying student athletes can help in reducing academic burnout and boosting academic optimism. Further research is suggested to compare academic burnout and academic optimism between athletic and non-athletic students, as well as among student athletes in different sports fields. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First and Fourth author: Data collection and data analysis; Second and Third author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the athletes who cooperated in the present research. Background and Purpose The interaction of students with education has been a concern of researchers, who have made extensive efforts to improve the educational conditions of students. Another important variable in the field of education is academic optimism, which refers to individual beliefs about capabilities, capacities, and internal potentials in the field of education. Emotional exhaustion is a factor that can affect aspects of students' education by influencing people's behavior. Emotional fatigue has been identified as a key dimension of depression, leading to a loss of energy, especially emotional energy in individuals. Additionally, anxiety related to academic progress is another important issue noted by researchers. Academic progress anxiety refers to individuals feeling anxious and concerned about their academic progress. Among students, student athletes are a significant group who are involved in both academic and sports activities simultaneously. Given the popularity of sports, it is expected that students may prioritize sports activities and pay less attention to academic matters. Material and Methods The current research is a descriptive study, classified as applied research, conducted in the field. The research method used is a survey for data collection. The statistical population consisted of male student athletes who regularly participated in sports teams, with no information available on their exact numbers. Based on available data, a sample of 200 male student athletes from various sports fields was identified.The research utilized four questionnaires: Emotional Fatigue Questionnaire: This questionnaire was used to measure emotional fatigue. This questionnaire consists of 8 five-choice questions, scored on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1=very low to 5=very high. Academic Progress Anxiety Questionnaire: Developed by Alpert and Haber, this questionnaire assesses students' anxiety related to academic progress. It contains 19 questions with 2 components of facilitating anxiety. Educational Optimism Questionnaire: The Sechennomoran et al. questionnaire was used to measure academic optimism. It includes 28 questions assessing students' trust in teachers (10 questions), academic emphasis (8 questions), and sense of identity towards school (10 questions). Academic Burnout Questionnaire: This questionnaire was used to evaluate academic burnout. It consists of 15 questions designed on a 5-point Likert scale, measuring academic fatigue (5 questions), academic disinterest (4 questions), and academic inefficiency (6 questions). For data analysis, the research employed the structural equations with partial least squares approach (SEM-PLS). Data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 20 and PLS version 3 software. Results In order to investigate the relationships between research variables, the structural equation method was used. To identify the distribution of the data in the present study, calculations of skewness and kurtosis were utilized. Based on the results of these indicators, it was determined that the data in the present study exhibited an abnormal distribution. The research model and t-statistics revealed that emotional exhaustion has a negative effect on academic optimism at a rate of -0.596 and a positive effect on academic burnout at a rate of 0.805. Additionally, academic achievement anxiety has a negative effect on academic optimism at -0.294 and a positive effect on academic burnout at 0.151. Discussion Paying attention to the academic factors of students has always been considered an important issue. The results of the present research indicated that emotional fatigue increases the level of academic burnout and decreases the level of academic optimism among student athletes. Therefore, focusing on addressing emotional fatigue can lead to improvements in academic burnout and academic optimism among student athletes. The findings of the study also revealed that academic achievement anxiety contributes to higher levels of academic burnout and lower levels of academic optimism in student athletes. Addressing academic achievement anxiety can serve as a foundation for enhancing conditions related to academic burnout and academic optimism among student athletes. Based on the results of this research, it is recommended that training courses for student athletes focus on enhancing their mental skills to reduce academic burnout and increase academic optimism. Additionally, providing spiritual support and identifying student athletes can help in reducing academic burnout and boosting academic optimism. Further research is suggested to compare academic burnout and academic optimism between athletic and non-athletic students, as well as among student athletes in different sports fields. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First and Fourth author: Data collection and data analysis; Second and Third author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the athletes who cooperated in the present research.

https://spsyj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4311_a787f02ed34fd886eb6d49e60d9c9120.pdf

Sport Sciences Research institute Sport Psychology Studies 2345-2978 13 49 2024 09 22 Normalization of the Sports Social Support Perception Questionnaire in the Elderly: The Persian Form Normalization of the Sports Social Support Perception Questionnaire in the Elderly: The Persian Form 45 62 4312 10.22089/spsyj.2024.15514.2430 FA S. Mohammadreza Alavizadeh Postdoctoral Researcher in Sports Psychology, Department of Motor Behavior and Sports Psychology 0000-0002-5220-4940 Alireza Bahrami Associate Professor, Department of Motor Behavior and Sports Psychology, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Arak University, Arak, Iran 0000-0001-9360-9373 Journal Article 2023 08 26 Background and Purpose With the increasing number of older people worldwide, health and wellbeing concerns are becoming more crucial. Advances in science and medicine, along with longer life expectancy, are leading to higher longevity among older individuals (Koochakzadeh et al., 2021). The specific circumstances of women highlight the need to address health and physical activity issues in this demographic. Regular physical activity tailored for older adults can enhance and sustain their health. Exercise, including aerobic and balance routines, strengthens muscles, improves mobility, enhances physical performance, reduces the risk of chronic conditions like heart disease and diabetes, and enhances mental wellbeing in mobile older adults. Social support, perceived participation, sports, and physical and mental healthcare are all vital components. Engaging in sports and physical activities can help older individuals maintain their physical health, cognitive function, communication skills, and social connections (Chen et al., 2020; Contreras-Osorio et al., 2022). Furthermore, exercise can foster a sense of achievement and purpose, leading to increased self-esteem and overall life satisfaction (Chen et al., 2021). Support from family, friends, and the community also plays a significant role in promoting healthy aging. Therefore, it is essential for communities to offer opportunities for older adults to engage in sports and social support networks to foster healthy aging. Various instruments are utilized to evaluate social support, with established psychometric properties in sports (Holt & Hoar, 2006) and social psychology (Haber et al., 2007). Examples include the Social Support Questionnaire (Sarason et al., 1983) and the Perceived Social Support Questionnaire (Brown et al., 1987). In the realm of sport psychology, instruments like the Social Support Scale (Santiago et al., 2023) and the Interpersonal Support Assessment List (Cohen & Hoberman, 1983) are commonly used. In Iran, various questionnaires have been employed, such as the social support questionnaire (Hooman & Livarjani, 2008), the social support scale in the medical outcome study (Mohammadzadeh et al., 2016), and the social support questionnaire (Vaux et al., 1986) in sports settings (Hosseini & Farzan, 2018). Given the significance of the issue, the existing challenges, the rise in the elderly population, and researchers' interest in supporting this demographic, this study aims to assess the psychometric properties of a specific sports instrument, explore the perception of available social support, and establish the factor structure, reliability, and validity of this instrument. Materials and Method This study is a type of developmental research with an applied purpose in the field of sports social psychology research (Alavizadeh et al., 2020; 2021; Alavizadeh; Sepah Mansour et al., 2020). The statistical population of this study was older athletes in Tehran. The sample size was determined using a rule of thumb: 10 participants out of 160 for each item. The participants of this study were 147 older athletes (43 females and 104 males) out of 2022 who were selected through snowball sampling based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Participants completed the Persian form of the Sport Social Support Perceptions Questionnaire (SSSP-Q). Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted in SPSS-26, and the results of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), uni-dimensionality of indicators, composite reliability, and convergent and divergent (diagnostic) validity were also analyzed in SmartPLS-3 software. Results The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test (KMO) indicated that the sample adequacy was appropriate (KMO = 0.71); additionally, the Bartlett test was statistically significant (χ2=874.742, p=0.01). Following orthogonal rotation using the varimax method, a four-factor model was derived. These four factors account for 64.67% of the total variance of the test. The subscales of self-esteem support, information support, emotional support, and tangible support also accounted for 17.13, 16.35, 16.17, and 15.03% of the total variance of the test, respectively. A) EFA The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test indicated that the sample adequacy is appropriate (KMO = 0.71); additionally, Bartlett's test was statistically significant (χ2=874.742, p=0.01). After orthogonal rotation using the varimax method, a four-factor model was derived. These four factors account for 64.67% of the total variance of the test. The sub-scales of self-esteem support, informational support, emotional support, and tangible support also accounted for 17.13, 16.35, 16.17, and 15.03% of the total variance of the test, respectively. B) CFA In the second part, the construct validity of the P-SSSP-Q was assessed using CFA. The results indicate that the indicators for the goodness of fit of the P-SSSP-Q have an acceptable value (NFI=0.85, SRMR=0.08). Therefore, the data align statistically with the factorial and theoretical structure of the four latent variables (structure). Uni-dimensionality of the indicators: The standardized factor loading (λ) of all selected indicators for the desired structures is above average (greater than 0.45) and statistically significant at the one percent error level (Hair et al., 2019). Composite and internal reliability: The composite reliability of all research constructs exceeds 0.70, and their internal consistency with the Cronbach's alpha coefficient is also greater than 0.70. Therefore, all latent variables (structures) in the research measurement model demonstrate very good reliability. Convergent validity: The results reveal that the average variance extracted (AVE) of all research constructs surpasses 0.50. Thus, all constructs in the research measurement model exhibit good convergent validity. Discriminant validity: Overall, the square root of AVE for each structure (0.813>AVE>0.771) exceeds the correlation between structures (0.690>AVE>0.310). This outcome confirms that the selected indicators for each construct share a significant portion of the common variance of that construct compared to others in the measurement model. Therefore, the discriminant validity of the constructs in the research measurement model is confirmed. Conclusion The results of the current study support the four-factor structure of the P-SSSP-Q. In the four-component model, factor loadings ranged from 0.46 to 0.54. The factor loadings of the questionnaire's dialects ranged from 0.67 for dialect number fifteen to 0.87 for dialect number five, and all dialects had acceptable factor loadings (Hair et al., 2019), so all dialects of the questionnaire were retained. The correlation between the four components of the questionnaire ranged from 0.31 to 0.69. Cohen et al. (1985) found that while social support can be conceptually categorized into specific dimensions, these dimensions are generally not independent in a natural environment. People who provide support may do so in different ways, such that an athlete who reports high levels of emotional support will be present on the P-SSSP-Q. This article presents initial evidence of the factor structure of the P-SSSP-Q. It suggests that developing and standardizing an instrument to accurately assess the availability of social support in sports can help answer important theoretical questions. The questionnaire also provides recommendations for social support instruments that are relevant to the target population and the context of the situation. The P-SSSP-Q can be used to explore the impact of perceived support in sports settings. Funding This research is part of a postdoctoral research project in sports psychology at the Faculty of Sports Science at the University of Arak. Authors' contributions First and Second author: Data collection, conceptualization, data analysis, authorship of the introduction; authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the older adults who participated in this research. Background and Purpose With the increasing number of older people worldwide, health and wellbeing concerns are becoming more crucial. Advances in science and medicine, along with longer life expectancy, are leading to higher longevity among older individuals (Koochakzadeh et al., 2021). The specific circumstances of women highlight the need to address health and physical activity issues in this demographic. Regular physical activity tailored for older adults can enhance and sustain their health. Exercise, including aerobic and balance routines, strengthens muscles, improves mobility, enhances physical performance, reduces the risk of chronic conditions like heart disease and diabetes, and enhances mental wellbeing in mobile older adults. Social support, perceived participation, sports, and physical and mental healthcare are all vital components. Engaging in sports and physical activities can help older individuals maintain their physical health, cognitive function, communication skills, and social connections (Chen et al., 2020; Contreras-Osorio et al., 2022). Furthermore, exercise can foster a sense of achievement and purpose, leading to increased self-esteem and overall life satisfaction (Chen et al., 2021). Support from family, friends, and the community also plays a significant role in promoting healthy aging. Therefore, it is essential for communities to offer opportunities for older adults to engage in sports and social support networks to foster healthy aging. Various instruments are utilized to evaluate social support, with established psychometric properties in sports (Holt & Hoar, 2006) and social psychology (Haber et al., 2007). Examples include the Social Support Questionnaire (Sarason et al., 1983) and the Perceived Social Support Questionnaire (Brown et al., 1987). In the realm of sport psychology, instruments like the Social Support Scale (Santiago et al., 2023) and the Interpersonal Support Assessment List (Cohen & Hoberman, 1983) are commonly used. In Iran, various questionnaires have been employed, such as the social support questionnaire (Hooman & Livarjani, 2008), the social support scale in the medical outcome study (Mohammadzadeh et al., 2016), and the social support questionnaire (Vaux et al., 1986) in sports settings (Hosseini & Farzan, 2018). Given the significance of the issue, the existing challenges, the rise in the elderly population, and researchers' interest in supporting this demographic, this study aims to assess the psychometric properties of a specific sports instrument, explore the perception of available social support, and establish the factor structure, reliability, and validity of this instrument. Materials and Method This study is a type of developmental research with an applied purpose in the field of sports social psychology research (Alavizadeh et al., 2020; 2021; Alavizadeh; Sepah Mansour et al., 2020). The statistical population of this study was older athletes in Tehran. The sample size was determined using a rule of thumb: 10 participants out of 160 for each item. The participants of this study were 147 older athletes (43 females and 104 males) out of 2022 who were selected through snowball sampling based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Participants completed the Persian form of the Sport Social Support Perceptions Questionnaire (SSSP-Q). Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted in SPSS-26, and the results of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), uni-dimensionality of indicators, composite reliability, and convergent and divergent (diagnostic) validity were also analyzed in SmartPLS-3 software. Results The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test (KMO) indicated that the sample adequacy was appropriate (KMO = 0.71); additionally, the Bartlett test was statistically significant (χ2=874.742, p=0.01). Following orthogonal rotation using the varimax method, a four-factor model was derived. These four factors account for 64.67% of the total variance of the test. The subscales of self-esteem support, information support, emotional support, and tangible support also accounted for 17.13, 16.35, 16.17, and 15.03% of the total variance of the test, respectively. A) EFA The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test indicated that the sample adequacy is appropriate (KMO = 0.71); additionally, Bartlett's test was statistically significant (χ2=874.742, p=0.01). After orthogonal rotation using the varimax method, a four-factor model was derived. These four factors account for 64.67% of the total variance of the test. The sub-scales of self-esteem support, informational support, emotional support, and tangible support also accounted for 17.13, 16.35, 16.17, and 15.03% of the total variance of the test, respectively. B) CFA In the second part, the construct validity of the P-SSSP-Q was assessed using CFA. The results indicate that the indicators for the goodness of fit of the P-SSSP-Q have an acceptable value (NFI=0.85, SRMR=0.08). Therefore, the data align statistically with the factorial and theoretical structure of the four latent variables (structure). Uni-dimensionality of the indicators: The standardized factor loading (λ) of all selected indicators for the desired structures is above average (greater than 0.45) and statistically significant at the one percent error level (Hair et al., 2019). Composite and internal reliability: The composite reliability of all research constructs exceeds 0.70, and their internal consistency with the Cronbach's alpha coefficient is also greater than 0.70. Therefore, all latent variables (structures) in the research measurement model demonstrate very good reliability. Convergent validity: The results reveal that the average variance extracted (AVE) of all research constructs surpasses 0.50. Thus, all constructs in the research measurement model exhibit good convergent validity. Discriminant validity: Overall, the square root of AVE for each structure (0.813>AVE>0.771) exceeds the correlation between structures (0.690>AVE>0.310). This outcome confirms that the selected indicators for each construct share a significant portion of the common variance of that construct compared to others in the measurement model. Therefore, the discriminant validity of the constructs in the research measurement model is confirmed. Conclusion The results of the current study support the four-factor structure of the P-SSSP-Q. In the four-component model, factor loadings ranged from 0.46 to 0.54. The factor loadings of the questionnaire's dialects ranged from 0.67 for dialect number fifteen to 0.87 for dialect number five, and all dialects had acceptable factor loadings (Hair et al., 2019), so all dialects of the questionnaire were retained. The correlation between the four components of the questionnaire ranged from 0.31 to 0.69. Cohen et al. (1985) found that while social support can be conceptually categorized into specific dimensions, these dimensions are generally not independent in a natural environment. People who provide support may do so in different ways, such that an athlete who reports high levels of emotional support will be present on the P-SSSP-Q. This article presents initial evidence of the factor structure of the P-SSSP-Q. It suggests that developing and standardizing an instrument to accurately assess the availability of social support in sports can help answer important theoretical questions. The questionnaire also provides recommendations for social support instruments that are relevant to the target population and the context of the situation. The P-SSSP-Q can be used to explore the impact of perceived support in sports settings. Funding This research is part of a postdoctoral research project in sports psychology at the Faculty of Sports Science at the University of Arak. Authors' contributions First and Second author: Data collection, conceptualization, data analysis, authorship of the introduction; authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the older adults who participated in this research.

https://spsyj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4312_27d8d40b22f812a1ba6c26f8ef7df480.pdf

Sport Sciences Research institute Sport Psychology Studies 2345-2978 13 49 2024 09 22 Effect of Game-Based Sports Exercises on High-Level Cognitive Processes of Late- Learners Effect of Game-Based Sports Exercises on High-Level Cognitive Processes of Late- Learners 63 76 4314 10.22089/spsyj.2024.15926.2443 FA Mohsen Torki Department of Sports Psychology, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran Aali Esmaeili . Associate Professor, Department of Motor Behavior, University of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran 0000-0002-5761-1887 Zahra Salman Associate Professor, Department of Motor Behavior, University of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran 0000-0001-7093-7518 Journal Article 2023 12 25 Background and Purpose Attention to the students in a society during elementary school is considered one of the most important issues and best investment methods for that society. Education plays a crucial role in providing knowledge of our surrounding world, and inclusive education that caters to students with special needs is essential (Mathikasari et al., 2019). In most countries, the education system is designed in a way that students with learning disabilities are placed alongside their typically developing peers. Failure of these children to develop interpersonal cognitive abilities may lead to poor adjustment in school and the occurrence of excitable and aggressive behaviors (Shkohi Yekta, et al., 2013). Research indicates that students with borderline intelligence often face challenges in academic achievement, mental health, and social adjustment. Specifically, these students tend to struggle in math and reading courses (Giji et al., 2014; Weiland et al., 2017). Therefore, the aim of this research is to investigate the effect of game-based sports exercises on the high-level cognitive processes of late learners. Material and Methods The research method is quasi-experimental, utilizing a pre-test and post-test design with test and control groups. This project involves two subject groups, both of which are measured twice. The initial measurement is conducted with a pre-test, followed by a post-test. To create the groups, the random purposive sampling method is used to assign subjects to either the test or control group. These groups are similar, and the dependent variable is measured for both groups under the same conditions simultaneously. Of the two groups, the first is exposed to an intervention involving game-based sports exercises, while the second continues without intervention. The statistical population for this research includes all late-learners in the third grade of Foladshahr with an IQ between 70 and 85, enrolled in the academic year 2020-2021. Twelve students aged 9-10, identified as late-learners, are selected and randomly divided into two groups after the pre-test: the test group (n=6) and the control group (n=6). Both groups participate in three sessions per week, totaling 12 sessions of 60 minutes each according to the established protocol. The measurement tool used is the Wisconsin Card Classification Software, and data analysis is conducted using SPSS version 21 software. Result The results showed that, the game-based sports exercises are effective on the planning ability, attention, working memory and cognitive flexibility variables amang late learners (P<0.05). Conclusion The results of the study show that game-based sports exercises are not effective in improving the attention and concentration of late learners. This finding is not consistent with the research of Ghasemi (2020) and Nejati (2020). Ghasemi (2020), in his research entitled "The effectiveness of play therapy in increasing attention and social adjustment of elementary school students with behavioral disorders," concluded that play therapy training is effective in increasing attention, social adjustment, and reducing behavioral disorders in students with behavioral disorders. Nejati (2020), in research entitled "Exercise for cognitive improvement, rehabilitation, and improvement of attention and executive function in children with hyperactivity," concluded that the test group performed better than the control group in selective attention, sustained attention, inhibition skills, and cognitive flexibility. Additionally, game-based sports exercises are effective in improving the working memory of late learners. This finding is consistent with the results of Kirk et al. (2015). In the latest research, it was found that sports exercises are effective in improving the executive functions of planning and working memory in children with dyslexia (Mousavi et al., 2022). Many performed research studies consider working memory as one of the most essential human cognitive faculties for many life affairs. Engagement in game-based sports exercises provides a unique approach to promote cognitive development in late learners. Therefore, it is recommended to have a positive effect on strengthening the high-level cognitive processes of late learners and the quality of their education and future life by including game-based sports exercises in the physical education program of schools as a complementary program. Authors' contributions First and Second author: Data collection, conceptualization, data analysis, authorship of the introduction; Second and Third author: Presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology, writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the older adults who participated in this research. Background and Purpose Attention to the students in a society during elementary school is considered one of the most important issues and best investment methods for that society. Education plays a crucial role in providing knowledge of our surrounding world, and inclusive education that caters to students with special needs is essential (Mathikasari et al., 2019). In most countries, the education system is designed in a way that students with learning disabilities are placed alongside their typically developing peers. Failure of these children to develop interpersonal cognitive abilities may lead to poor adjustment in school and the occurrence of excitable and aggressive behaviors (Shkohi Yekta, et al., 2013). Research indicates that students with borderline intelligence often face challenges in academic achievement, mental health, and social adjustment. Specifically, these students tend to struggle in math and reading courses (Giji et al., 2014; Weiland et al., 2017). Therefore, the aim of this research is to investigate the effect of game-based sports exercises on the high-level cognitive processes of late learners. Material and Methods The research method is quasi-experimental, utilizing a pre-test and post-test design with test and control groups. This project involves two subject groups, both of which are measured twice. The initial measurement is conducted with a pre-test, followed by a post-test. To create the groups, the random purposive sampling method is used to assign subjects to either the test or control group. These groups are similar, and the dependent variable is measured for both groups under the same conditions simultaneously. Of the two groups, the first is exposed to an intervention involving game-based sports exercises, while the second continues without intervention. The statistical population for this research includes all late-learners in the third grade of Foladshahr with an IQ between 70 and 85, enrolled in the academic year 2020-2021. Twelve students aged 9-10, identified as late-learners, are selected and randomly divided into two groups after the pre-test: the test group (n=6) and the control group (n=6). Both groups participate in three sessions per week, totaling 12 sessions of 60 minutes each according to the established protocol. The measurement tool used is the Wisconsin Card Classification Software, and data analysis is conducted using SPSS version 21 software. Result The results showed that, the game-based sports exercises are effective on the planning ability, attention, working memory and cognitive flexibility variables amang late learners (P<0.05). Conclusion The results of the study show that game-based sports exercises are not effective in improving the attention and concentration of late learners. This finding is not consistent with the research of Ghasemi (2020) and Nejati (2020). Ghasemi (2020), in his research entitled "The effectiveness of play therapy in increasing attention and social adjustment of elementary school students with behavioral disorders," concluded that play therapy training is effective in increasing attention, social adjustment, and reducing behavioral disorders in students with behavioral disorders. Nejati (2020), in research entitled "Exercise for cognitive improvement, rehabilitation, and improvement of attention and executive function in children with hyperactivity," concluded that the test group performed better than the control group in selective attention, sustained attention, inhibition skills, and cognitive flexibility. Additionally, game-based sports exercises are effective in improving the working memory of late learners. This finding is consistent with the results of Kirk et al. (2015). In the latest research, it was found that sports exercises are effective in improving the executive functions of planning and working memory in children with dyslexia (Mousavi et al., 2022). Many performed research studies consider working memory as one of the most essential human cognitive faculties for many life affairs. Engagement in game-based sports exercises provides a unique approach to promote cognitive development in late learners. Therefore, it is recommended to have a positive effect on strengthening the high-level cognitive processes of late learners and the quality of their education and future life by including game-based sports exercises in the physical education program of schools as a complementary program. Authors' contributions First and Second author: Data collection, conceptualization, data analysis, authorship of the introduction; Second and Third author: Presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology, writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the older adults who participated in this research.

https://spsyj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4314_2bf7e9e8f3f3bce1ac5212f22414aa57.pdf

Sport Sciences Research institute Sport Psychology Studies 2345-2978 13 49 2024 09 22 Effect of an Intervention Course on Autonomy on Student Motivation and Engagement: Investigating the Role of Gender Effect of an Intervention Course on Autonomy on Student Motivation and Engagement: Investigating the Role of Gender 77 91 4417 10.22089/spsyj.2024.15892.2442 FA Ahdiyeh Yadollahzadeh Department of Physical Education, Farhangian University, Tehran, Iran 0009-0009-6534-9303 Sheida Ranjbari Department of Physical Education, Urmia Branch, Islamic Azad University, Urmia, Iran 0000-0002-8005-0715 Sedighe Aflaton Department of Physical Education, Farhangian University, Gorgan, Iran 0000-0002-1994-6539 Meysam Rezaei Department of Physical Education, Mashhad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Iran Journal Article 2023 11 06 Background and Purpose Research has shown that engaging in physical activity has numerous benefits for mental and physical health, such as improving cardio-muscular function, physical fitness, cognitive and mental functions, and reducing depression, anxiety, and obesity (Collins & Staples, 2017; Gerber et al., 2021; Lahart et al., 2019; Marker et al., 2018; Poitras et al., 2016; Schwartz et al., 2019). Several studies have indicated that adults worldwide do not engage in regular physical activity and fail to meet the WHO guidelines of 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity per day (Sallis, 2016). According to the theory of self-determination, there are specific psychological and social goals that, when met, can enhance a person's growth, integration, and well-being. These goals, known as basic psychological needs, include "autonomy," "competence," and "relatedness" (Deci & Ryan, 2000). This study aimed to contribute to the existing knowledge on the impact of autonomy support on the motivation and participation of adults in physical activity. Materials and Methods This study employed a causal-comparative (pre-test and post-test) research design conducted in the field. The participants were 60 male and female student teachers from Farhangian University of Sistan and Baluchistan, aged between 19 and 21 years (average age 19.84 years). Participants were purposefully assigned to two groups: "choice" (exercise with autonomy) and "no choice" (exercise without autonomy), each consisting of 30 individuals (15 men and 15 women). Modern accelerometers (ActiGraph wGT3X-BT, ActiGraph LLC, Pensacola, FL, USA) were used to measure physical activity, with a focus on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) to assess the subjects' activity levels. The research protocol comprised pre-test, intervention, and post-test stages. In the pre-test (one week before the intervention), participants wore an accelerometer device on their right hip for a week. Subsequently, the autonomy and non-autonomy groups engaged in the research protocol during physical education classes for three months. Data analysis was performed using SPSS 26 statistical software, with mean and standard deviation calculated for data description. Results Regarding internal motivation, both groups exhibited similar levels in the pre-test (t=0.55, p=0.92). However, in the post-test, the choice group demonstrated significantly higher intrinsic motivation than the no-choice group (t=6.61, p=0.000). Analysis of variance revealed a significant increase in internal motivation from pre-test to post-test in the choice group, but no change in the no-choice group. In terms of identified regulation, both groups showed comparable levels in the pre-test (t=0.67, p=0.61). Yet, in the post-test, the choice group displayed significantly higher identified regulation than the no-choice group (t=9.22, p=0.000), with a notable increase observed in the choice group from pre-test to post-test. Regarding internal regulation, both groups had similar levels in the pre-test (t=0.82, p=0.79). A significant decrease in internal regulation was noted in the choice group from pre-test to post-test, while no change was observed in the no-choice group. For external regulation, both groups had similar levels in the pre-test (t=0.76, p=0.86). However, in the post-test, the choice group exhibited significantly lower external regulation than the no-choice group (t=4.61, p=0.000), with a decrease observed in the choice group from pre-test to post-test. Regarding lack of motivation, a significant decrease was noted in the choice group from pre-test to post-test, but no change was observed in the no-choice group. Analysis of variance also revealed a significant increase in MVPA in the choice group from pre-test to post-test, while no change was observed in the no-choice group. Conclusion In conclusion, this study explored the impact of an autonomy support intervention in a physical education classroom on motivation and objective physical activity levels among college students. The results indicated that implementing autonomy-based teaching strategies was effective in enhancing autonomous motivation and physical activity while reducing controlled motivation in students. These findings suggest that self-determination theory principles can be applied to students. Despite students not meeting the WHO guidelines for daily MVPA, exposure to autonomy support interventions led to increased participation in MVPA compared to traditional instructional methods. This highlights the positive impact of teaching styles rooted in self-determination theory. Therefore, university physical education instructors can utilize these teaching approaches to enhance students' health-oriented physical activity levels, aligning with the primary objective of general physical education courses. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First and Third author: Data collection and data analysis; Second and Third author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, Fourth author: authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the students who cooperated in the present research. Background and Purpose Research has shown that engaging in physical activity has numerous benefits for mental and physical health, such as improving cardio-muscular function, physical fitness, cognitive and mental functions, and reducing depression, anxiety, and obesity (Collins & Staples, 2017; Gerber et al., 2021; Lahart et al., 2019; Marker et al., 2018; Poitras et al., 2016; Schwartz et al., 2019). Several studies have indicated that adults worldwide do not engage in regular physical activity and fail to meet the WHO guidelines of 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity per day (Sallis, 2016). According to the theory of self-determination, there are specific psychological and social goals that, when met, can enhance a person's growth, integration, and well-being. These goals, known as basic psychological needs, include "autonomy," "competence," and "relatedness" (Deci & Ryan, 2000). This study aimed to contribute to the existing knowledge on the impact of autonomy support on the motivation and participation of adults in physical activity. Materials and Methods This study employed a causal-comparative (pre-test and post-test) research design conducted in the field. The participants were 60 male and female student teachers from Farhangian University of Sistan and Baluchistan, aged between 19 and 21 years (average age 19.84 years). Participants were purposefully assigned to two groups: "choice" (exercise with autonomy) and "no choice" (exercise without autonomy), each consisting of 30 individuals (15 men and 15 women). Modern accelerometers (ActiGraph wGT3X-BT, ActiGraph LLC, Pensacola, FL, USA) were used to measure physical activity, with a focus on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) to assess the subjects' activity levels. The research protocol comprised pre-test, intervention, and post-test stages. In the pre-test (one week before the intervention), participants wore an accelerometer device on their right hip for a week. Subsequently, the autonomy and non-autonomy groups engaged in the research protocol during physical education classes for three months. Data analysis was performed using SPSS 26 statistical software, with mean and standard deviation calculated for data description. Results Regarding internal motivation, both groups exhibited similar levels in the pre-test (t=0.55, p=0.92). However, in the post-test, the choice group demonstrated significantly higher intrinsic motivation than the no-choice group (t=6.61, p=0.000). Analysis of variance revealed a significant increase in internal motivation from pre-test to post-test in the choice group, but no change in the no-choice group. In terms of identified regulation, both groups showed comparable levels in the pre-test (t=0.67, p=0.61). Yet, in the post-test, the choice group displayed significantly higher identified regulation than the no-choice group (t=9.22, p=0.000), with a notable increase observed in the choice group from pre-test to post-test. Regarding internal regulation, both groups had similar levels in the pre-test (t=0.82, p=0.79). A significant decrease in internal regulation was noted in the choice group from pre-test to post-test, while no change was observed in the no-choice group. For external regulation, both groups had similar levels in the pre-test (t=0.76, p=0.86). However, in the post-test, the choice group exhibited significantly lower external regulation than the no-choice group (t=4.61, p=0.000), with a decrease observed in the choice group from pre-test to post-test. Regarding lack of motivation, a significant decrease was noted in the choice group from pre-test to post-test, but no change was observed in the no-choice group. Analysis of variance also revealed a significant increase in MVPA in the choice group from pre-test to post-test, while no change was observed in the no-choice group. Conclusion In conclusion, this study explored the impact of an autonomy support intervention in a physical education classroom on motivation and objective physical activity levels among college students. The results indicated that implementing autonomy-based teaching strategies was effective in enhancing autonomous motivation and physical activity while reducing controlled motivation in students. These findings suggest that self-determination theory principles can be applied to students. Despite students not meeting the WHO guidelines for daily MVPA, exposure to autonomy support interventions led to increased participation in MVPA compared to traditional instructional methods. This highlights the positive impact of teaching styles rooted in self-determination theory. Therefore, university physical education instructors can utilize these teaching approaches to enhance students' health-oriented physical activity levels, aligning with the primary objective of general physical education courses. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First and Third author: Data collection and data analysis; Second and Third author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, Fourth author: authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the students who cooperated in the present research.

https://spsyj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4417_dc2208f9bbd11486d5dbbb9218e03017.pdf

Sport Sciences Research institute Sport Psychology Studies 2345-2978 13 49 2024 09 22 Effectiveness of Laughter Yoga Intervention on Reducing Depression and Increasing life Expectancy in Women (Case Study: Isfahan city) Effectiveness of Laughter Yoga Intervention on Reducing Depression and Increasing life Expectancy in Women (Case Study: Isfahan city) 92 108 4369 10.22089/spsyj.2024.16918.2488 FA FARZANEH DAVARI Department of Physical Education, Farhangian University, P.O. Box 14665-889, Tehran, Iran 0000-0002-4923-054X Maryam Amooei f Department of Physical Education,Farhangian University, P.O. Box 14665-889,Tehran, Iran 0000-0002-8571-711X Mitra Shirvani Jozdani MSc in Sports Psychology, Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Isfahan Azad University (Khorasgan), Isfahan, Iran 0000-0002-4923-054X Journal Article 2024 06 25 Background and Purpose Depression is a widespread mental health disorder that differs significantly from normal mood changes and affects various aspects of life, including relationships and social interactions. Globally, approximately 4% of the population experiences depression, with higher prevalence in women (6%) compared to men (4%), and among those over 60 years old (5.7%) (Woodi et al. 2017). Depression is more common in women, with about a 50% higher prevalence, and is a major contributor to suicide, causing over 700,000 deaths annually worldwide, making it the fourth leading cause of death. In Iran, depression rates range between 5.7% and 7.3% across different populations (Montazeri et al., 2013). The disorder manifests differently in men and women, with symptoms like loss of interest, excessive crying, indecisiveness, and low energy being common. Women are more prone to depression due to factors like violence, economic hardship, workplace challenges, and sexual abuse. Additionally, people with mental health disorders, including depression, face significant challenges, such as reduced life expectancy—living 10 to 20 years less than the general population—underscoring the need for targeted interventions (Metrics, & Evaluation, 2021). Research indicates that both laughter and physical activity have significant benefits for physical and mental health. Laughter, particularly through practices like laughter yoga—which combines yoga stretches and breathing exercises with laughter—has been shown to positively impact various bodily systems. It promotes muscle relaxation, boosts immune response, balances hormones, and enhances mental well-being. Laughter yoga also improves physiological functions such as respiration, digestion, and blood pressure, while reducing stress hormones and stimulating endorphin release, leading to a greater sense of well-being. Similarly, physical activity is recommended as a low-cost, low-risk strategy for preventing and treating depression, which often results in economic burdens and deteriorating physical health. Regular exercise helps manage weight, improve cardiovascular health, and reduce the risk of chronic diseases like diabetes and hypertension. Importantly, physical activity, and laughter yoga in particular, are effective ways to improve mental health, offering a natural and accessible means to enhance overall well-being. Research indicates that laughter can boost catecholamine levels and improve cognitive function. While laughter does not reverse aging, it helps maintain alertness and memory, especially in older adults. In stressful situations, laughter reduces stress hormones in the blood, promoting relaxation and health. Recent studies have shown that laughter yoga can significantly enhance mental and physical health, particularly by increasing life expectancy. Given the lack of sufficient research in Iran on the effects of laughter yoga on depression symptoms and life expectancy in women, this study aims to explore this important issue further. Material and Methods This study utilized a quasi-experimental design with a pre-test and post-test control group to investigate the effects of laughter yoga on depression and hope levels among women. The research sample consisted of women attending classes at Red Crescent centers in Isfahan. A multistage random sampling method was used to select one center and a specific class within that center. From this class, 30 women who scored highest on the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and lowest on the Adult Hope Scale (AHS) were chosen and randomly assigned to either the experimental group (15 participants) or the control group (15 participants). The BDI-II, a widely used self-report instrument, assessed depression levels, while the AHS measured participants' levels of hope based on Snyder’s cognitive model, focusing on agency (motivation) and pathways (planning to achieve goals). Both instruments have demonstrated strong reliability in previous studies. The intervention involved 24 laughter yoga sessions over eight weeks, with three sessions per week, each lasting 45 minutes. The experimental group participated in these sessions, which included clapping with rhythmic chants, stretching exercises, and playful activities designed to induce laughter. Each session concluded with positive affirmations and meditation to enhance participants' mood and overall sense of well-being. The control group did not engage in any physical activities during this period. Results Results showed that the post-test scores for hope in life were significantly different between the experimental and control groups after controlling for pre-test scores (P= 0.001). The laughter yoga training effectively increased the level of hope in life among women in the post-test phase. The impact of this training on improving hope in life was quantified at 0.546, indicating that approximately 54.6% of the variance in hope in life can be attributed to group membership or the effect of the training. Conclusion This study demonstrates that an eight-week laughter yoga program can significantly reduce symptoms of mild to moderate depression in women. The findings revealed a significant difference between pre-test and post-test depression scores (P=0.002), aligning with previous research that supports laughter yoga as an effective complementary therapy for depression. Studies such as those by Keykha-Hosseinpour (2013) and Eshgh et al. (2011) have similarly shown that physical activity plays a crucial role in improving mental health disorders. Moreover, laughter yoga has been linked to increased levels of mood-enhancing hormones like endorphins and serotonin, which help alleviate depression symptoms. In addition to mood improvement, laughter yoga can reduce stress hormone levels, particularly cortisol, leading to better sleep quality and decreased anxiety symptoms. Research also suggests that enhancing the immune system through practices like laughter yoga can reduce the risk of depression, as a weakened immune system is often associated with mental health issues. Studies, including those by Tellhed et al. (2019) and Liu et al. (2022), confirm that yoga and related techniques effectively lower stress and anxiety, improving overall quality of life, especially in individuals with chronic conditions. The study also found that laughter yoga significantly increased hope scores in the experimental group (P=0.001), indicating its positive impact on life satisfaction and mental well-being. Physical activities and exercise have similarly been shown to enhance life expectancy and mental health by fostering social connections and a sense of belonging, which contribute to increased hope. Laughter yoga's stress-reducing and relaxation-inducing effects further enhance hope and life satisfaction. Physiologically, laughter affects various bodily systems, including the nervous, muscular, respiratory, circulatory, endocrine, and immune systems. It reduces stress hormones like cortisol while increasing happiness-related hormones such as endorphins and serotonin, thus improving mood and reducing depression. Psychologically, laughter directly combats depression by reducing stress, anxiety, and tension while enhancing mood, self-esteem, energy, and vitality. These combined benefits suggest that laughter yoga is a safe, effective, and accessible intervention for improving mental health and quality of life, particularly in women. Given its efficacy, laughter yoga is recommended as a complementary therapeutic tool in mental health programs, particularly for women. Future research should explore its effects on other populations, such as men, adolescents, students, and patients, using longer intervention periods and multiple control groups to provide more robust evidence. Overall, laughter yoga presents a cost-effective, non-pharmacological approach to enhancing mental health and could be widely promoted to improve public awareness of mental wellness strategies. The study suggests that laughter yoga not only serves as an effective intervention for reducing depression and enhancing hope but also as a comprehensive tool for improving overall mental and social well-being in various communities. Further research will help better understand its mechanisms and optimize its use. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First author: Data collection and authorship of the introduction; Second and Third author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology, and data analysis. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the athletes who cooperated in the present research. Background and Purpose Depression is a widespread mental health disorder that differs significantly from normal mood changes and affects various aspects of life, including relationships and social interactions. Globally, approximately 4% of the population experiences depression, with higher prevalence in women (6%) compared to men (4%), and among those over 60 years old (5.7%) (Woodi et al. 2017). Depression is more common in women, with about a 50% higher prevalence, and is a major contributor to suicide, causing over 700,000 deaths annually worldwide, making it the fourth leading cause of death. In Iran, depression rates range between 5.7% and 7.3% across different populations (Montazeri et al., 2013). The disorder manifests differently in men and women, with symptoms like loss of interest, excessive crying, indecisiveness, and low energy being common. Women are more prone to depression due to factors like violence, economic hardship, workplace challenges, and sexual abuse. Additionally, people with mental health disorders, including depression, face significant challenges, such as reduced life expectancy—living 10 to 20 years less than the general population—underscoring the need for targeted interventions (Metrics, & Evaluation, 2021). Research indicates that both laughter and physical activity have significant benefits for physical and mental health. Laughter, particularly through practices like laughter yoga—which combines yoga stretches and breathing exercises with laughter—has been shown to positively impact various bodily systems. It promotes muscle relaxation, boosts immune response, balances hormones, and enhances mental well-being. Laughter yoga also improves physiological functions such as respiration, digestion, and blood pressure, while reducing stress hormones and stimulating endorphin release, leading to a greater sense of well-being. Similarly, physical activity is recommended as a low-cost, low-risk strategy for preventing and treating depression, which often results in economic burdens and deteriorating physical health. Regular exercise helps manage weight, improve cardiovascular health, and reduce the risk of chronic diseases like diabetes and hypertension. Importantly, physical activity, and laughter yoga in particular, are effective ways to improve mental health, offering a natural and accessible means to enhance overall well-being. Research indicates that laughter can boost catecholamine levels and improve cognitive function. While laughter does not reverse aging, it helps maintain alertness and memory, especially in older adults. In stressful situations, laughter reduces stress hormones in the blood, promoting relaxation and health. Recent studies have shown that laughter yoga can significantly enhance mental and physical health, particularly by increasing life expectancy. Given the lack of sufficient research in Iran on the effects of laughter yoga on depression symptoms and life expectancy in women, this study aims to explore this important issue further. Material and Methods This study utilized a quasi-experimental design with a pre-test and post-test control group to investigate the effects of laughter yoga on depression and hope levels among women. The research sample consisted of women attending classes at Red Crescent centers in Isfahan. A multistage random sampling method was used to select one center and a specific class within that center. From this class, 30 women who scored highest on the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and lowest on the Adult Hope Scale (AHS) were chosen and randomly assigned to either the experimental group (15 participants) or the control group (15 participants). The BDI-II, a widely used self-report instrument, assessed depression levels, while the AHS measured participants' levels of hope based on Snyder’s cognitive model, focusing on agency (motivation) and pathways (planning to achieve goals). Both instruments have demonstrated strong reliability in previous studies. The intervention involved 24 laughter yoga sessions over eight weeks, with three sessions per week, each lasting 45 minutes. The experimental group participated in these sessions, which included clapping with rhythmic chants, stretching exercises, and playful activities designed to induce laughter. Each session concluded with positive affirmations and meditation to enhance participants' mood and overall sense of well-being. The control group did not engage in any physical activities during this period. Results Results showed that the post-test scores for hope in life were significantly different between the experimental and control groups after controlling for pre-test scores (P= 0.001). The laughter yoga training effectively increased the level of hope in life among women in the post-test phase. The impact of this training on improving hope in life was quantified at 0.546, indicating that approximately 54.6% of the variance in hope in life can be attributed to group membership or the effect of the training. Conclusion This study demonstrates that an eight-week laughter yoga program can significantly reduce symptoms of mild to moderate depression in women. The findings revealed a significant difference between pre-test and post-test depression scores (P=0.002), aligning with previous research that supports laughter yoga as an effective complementary therapy for depression. Studies such as those by Keykha-Hosseinpour (2013) and Eshgh et al. (2011) have similarly shown that physical activity plays a crucial role in improving mental health disorders. Moreover, laughter yoga has been linked to increased levels of mood-enhancing hormones like endorphins and serotonin, which help alleviate depression symptoms. In addition to mood improvement, laughter yoga can reduce stress hormone levels, particularly cortisol, leading to better sleep quality and decreased anxiety symptoms. Research also suggests that enhancing the immune system through practices like laughter yoga can reduce the risk of depression, as a weakened immune system is often associated with mental health issues. Studies, including those by Tellhed et al. (2019) and Liu et al. (2022), confirm that yoga and related techniques effectively lower stress and anxiety, improving overall quality of life, especially in individuals with chronic conditions. The study also found that laughter yoga significantly increased hope scores in the experimental group (P=0.001), indicating its positive impact on life satisfaction and mental well-being. Physical activities and exercise have similarly been shown to enhance life expectancy and mental health by fostering social connections and a sense of belonging, which contribute to increased hope. Laughter yoga's stress-reducing and relaxation-inducing effects further enhance hope and life satisfaction. Physiologically, laughter affects various bodily systems, including the nervous, muscular, respiratory, circulatory, endocrine, and immune systems. It reduces stress hormones like cortisol while increasing happiness-related hormones such as endorphins and serotonin, thus improving mood and reducing depression. Psychologically, laughter directly combats depression by reducing stress, anxiety, and tension while enhancing mood, self-esteem, energy, and vitality. These combined benefits suggest that laughter yoga is a safe, effective, and accessible intervention for improving mental health and quality of life, particularly in women. Given its efficacy, laughter yoga is recommended as a complementary therapeutic tool in mental health programs, particularly for women. Future research should explore its effects on other populations, such as men, adolescents, students, and patients, using longer intervention periods and multiple control groups to provide more robust evidence. Overall, laughter yoga presents a cost-effective, non-pharmacological approach to enhancing mental health and could be widely promoted to improve public awareness of mental wellness strategies. The study suggests that laughter yoga not only serves as an effective intervention for reducing depression and enhancing hope but also as a comprehensive tool for improving overall mental and social well-being in various communities. Further research will help better understand its mechanisms and optimize its use. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First author: Data collection and authorship of the introduction; Second and Third author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology, and data analysis. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the athletes who cooperated in the present research.

https://spsyj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4369_665d5cbb82b5785d9f344c46417c6c36.pdf

Sport Sciences Research institute Sport Psychology Studies 2345-2978 13 49 2024 09 22 Identifying Factors Influencing the Adherence to Sports Activities of Teenagers: A Qualitative Study Identifying Factors Influencing the Adherence to Sports Activities of Teenagers: A Qualitative Study 109 132 4371 10.22089/spsyj.2024.15354.2423 FA Ghasem Babaei Zarch Ph. D Student in Sport Psychology, Department of Behavior Cognitive Sciences in Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran 0000-0002-3981-594X Fazlolah Bagherzade Department of Behavior Cognitive Sciences in Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran Ali Moghadam Zade Department of Psychology, Faculty Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. 0000-0002-9734-6547 Hassan Gharayagh Zandi Department Management Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran 0000-0002-3877-0217 Ahmad Mahmoudi Department Management Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran 0000-0001-7579-2274 Journal Article 2023 08 07 Background and Purpose The benefits of regular physical activity are well-proven. Regular participation in physical activity is associated with a better and longer life, reduced risk of various diseases, as well as emotional and psychological benefits. Adolescence is an important and vital period, and engaging in physical activity at this age can, in addition to having many positive effects for people, guarantee their habituation and participation in physical activity and sports to some extent in the future. Social learning theory emphasizes that behavior is learned through direct experience or observation of others (modeling). In fact, social support is related to the tasks and functions that significant other perform to facilitate action by the individual. Social support includes social resources that people are willing to receive to improve their relationships (Friedlander, 2007). On the other hand, Stoden et al. (2008) presented a conceptual model, highlighting the potential role of mastering basic motor skills in the positive and negative paths of participation in physical activity and healthy weight. Additionally, they introduced perceived motor competence and health-related physical fitness as mediating variables in this model, playing a variable role in the relationship between physical activity and motor competence in different stages of development. Regarding why people have problems sticking to sports activities despite its physical and psychological benefits, there is no acceptable solution or research. Also, it seems necessary to conduct the present research considering the different cultures in different societies and the change of cultures with the passage of time, the lack of scientific documents in this field and the progress of new sciences. Therefore, this research seeks to investigate what the reasons are for adolescents' adherence to physical activity and how it is achieved. Materials and Methods In this study, a qualitative approach was used and in-depth and semi-structured interview techniques were used to collect data. The participants were selected based on purposeful sampling among teenagers aged 12 to 16 years who had been engaging in sports activities continuously for one year or more along with their coaches. The sampling process continued until data saturation. Finally, 20 boys’ and girls’ athletes and 4 of their coaches were interviewed. In this research, the method of theme analysis and data analysis using the coding method was used. This was done by using open and axial coding, classifying existing text units into meaningful and logical categories or themes. Results According to the results of the analysis of teenagers' interviews, the most important reasons for sticking to sports activities included the three main themes of social and psychological support, motor competence and motivation. Social and psychological supports also include the influence of parents (psychological support, transportation, being a role model, financial support and being a spectator), the influence of coaches (the expertise of the coach, the ethics and personality of the coach, the interaction of parents), the influence of friends (being with friends and making friends) and the influence of the media (motivation, modeling and learning). Movement competence consisted of two factors: real movement competence (having talent, progress, suitable physical physics) and perceived movement competence (confirmation and encouragement of the coach, belief in one's abilities, awareness of one's weaknesses and strengths). Motivation also included two parts of internal motivation (interest, pleasure and fun) and external motivation (becoming a professional and having a goal, health and fitness). Conclusion Based on the results, it can be concluded that the role of parents as social supporters is crucial for teenagers to continue and adhere to sports activities. Parents can support their adolescents by taking them to and from the gym, covering club fees including registration fees and purchasing necessary equipment and clothing, showing interest in their adolescents' sports by attending their training and competitions, providing encouragement and constant communication, and even participating in exercise themselves. Cheng et al. (2014) found that social support directly and indirectly increases physical activity in both boys and girls. Another important factor in adolescents' adherence to sports activities is motor competence, which comprises real and perceived motor competence. Motor competence is linked to promoting a healthy lifestyle in children and adolescents, and studies have shown that individuals with high motor competence (HMC) are more likely to engage in physical activity and team sports, leading to increased social acceptance and self-confidence (Skinner and Peek, 2011). Recognizing teenagers' talents and abilities, increasing their self-awareness, catering to their interests, and providing motivation based on individual preferences can also encourage adherence to sports activities. Psychological motivations such as pleasure, fun, and entertainment in the sports environment play a significant role in teenagers' interest and continuation of sports. Maintaining interest in sports and continued participation depends on the presence of these factors. Setting goals, developing talent, and striving for improvement also impact sports activity by fostering pride in showcasing talent, honing skills, and outperforming others. According to the theory of the need for achievement, individuals who succeed due to their talent are driven to seek further success and enhance their performance (Gil et al., 2017). FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First and Second author: Data collection and authorship of the introduction; Third and Fourth author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology; Fifth author: Methodology and data analysis. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the people who participated in this research. Background and Purpose The benefits of regular physical activity are well-proven. Regular participation in physical activity is associated with a better and longer life, reduced risk of various diseases, as well as emotional and psychological benefits. Adolescence is an important and vital period, and engaging in physical activity at this age can, in addition to having many positive effects for people, guarantee their habituation and participation in physical activity and sports to some extent in the future. Social learning theory emphasizes that behavior is learned through direct experience or observation of others (modeling). In fact, social support is related to the tasks and functions that significant other perform to facilitate action by the individual. Social support includes social resources that people are willing to receive to improve their relationships (Friedlander, 2007). On the other hand, Stoden et al. (2008) presented a conceptual model, highlighting the potential role of mastering basic motor skills in the positive and negative paths of participation in physical activity and healthy weight. Additionally, they introduced perceived motor competence and health-related physical fitness as mediating variables in this model, playing a variable role in the relationship between physical activity and motor competence in different stages of development. Regarding why people have problems sticking to sports activities despite its physical and psychological benefits, there is no acceptable solution or research. Also, it seems necessary to conduct the present research considering the different cultures in different societies and the change of cultures with the passage of time, the lack of scientific documents in this field and the progress of new sciences. Therefore, this research seeks to investigate what the reasons are for adolescents' adherence to physical activity and how it is achieved. Materials and Methods In this study, a qualitative approach was used and in-depth and semi-structured interview techniques were used to collect data. The participants were selected based on purposeful sampling among teenagers aged 12 to 16 years who had been engaging in sports activities continuously for one year or more along with their coaches. The sampling process continued until data saturation. Finally, 20 boys’ and girls’ athletes and 4 of their coaches were interviewed. In this research, the method of theme analysis and data analysis using the coding method was used. This was done by using open and axial coding, classifying existing text units into meaningful and logical categories or themes. Results According to the results of the analysis of teenagers' interviews, the most important reasons for sticking to sports activities included the three main themes of social and psychological support, motor competence and motivation. Social and psychological supports also include the influence of parents (psychological support, transportation, being a role model, financial support and being a spectator), the influence of coaches (the expertise of the coach, the ethics and personality of the coach, the interaction of parents), the influence of friends (being with friends and making friends) and the influence of the media (motivation, modeling and learning). Movement competence consisted of two factors: real movement competence (having talent, progress, suitable physical physics) and perceived movement competence (confirmation and encouragement of the coach, belief in one's abilities, awareness of one's weaknesses and strengths). Motivation also included two parts of internal motivation (interest, pleasure and fun) and external motivation (becoming a professional and having a goal, health and fitness). Conclusion Based on the results, it can be concluded that the role of parents as social supporters is crucial for teenagers to continue and adhere to sports activities. Parents can support their adolescents by taking them to and from the gym, covering club fees including registration fees and purchasing necessary equipment and clothing, showing interest in their adolescents' sports by attending their training and competitions, providing encouragement and constant communication, and even participating in exercise themselves. Cheng et al. (2014) found that social support directly and indirectly increases physical activity in both boys and girls. Another important factor in adolescents' adherence to sports activities is motor competence, which comprises real and perceived motor competence. Motor competence is linked to promoting a healthy lifestyle in children and adolescents, and studies have shown that individuals with high motor competence (HMC) are more likely to engage in physical activity and team sports, leading to increased social acceptance and self-confidence (Skinner and Peek, 2011). Recognizing teenagers' talents and abilities, increasing their self-awareness, catering to their interests, and providing motivation based on individual preferences can also encourage adherence to sports activities. Psychological motivations such as pleasure, fun, and entertainment in the sports environment play a significant role in teenagers' interest and continuation of sports. Maintaining interest in sports and continued participation depends on the presence of these factors. Setting goals, developing talent, and striving for improvement also impact sports activity by fostering pride in showcasing talent, honing skills, and outperforming others. According to the theory of the need for achievement, individuals who succeed due to their talent are driven to seek further success and enhance their performance (Gil et al., 2017). FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First and Second author: Data collection and authorship of the introduction; Third and Fourth author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology; Fifth author: Methodology and data analysis. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the people who participated in this research.

https://spsyj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4371_1377e22fd81057b3e65aefd5fc634b64.pdf

Sport Sciences Research institute Sport Psychology Studies 2345-2978 13 49 2024 09 22 Comparison of Brain-Behavioral Systems (BAS - BIS) and Differentiation of Self between Female Athletes and Non-Athletes in Secondary School Comparison of Brain-Behavioral Systems (BAS - BIS) and Differentiation of Self between Female Athletes and Non-Athletes in Secondary School 133 146 4372 10.22089/spsyj.2024.14366.2380 FA Sheyda Noori Ms in Sports Psychology, Department of Education, Ardabil, Iran. Ghasem Elyasi Department of Physical Education, Sarab Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sarab, Iran 0000-0003-1804-7571 Journal Article 2023 03 13 Background and Purpose In the world of sports, in addition to physical and tactical preparation, psychological and personality characteristics are considered influencing factors on the optimal performance of athletes. Athletes at different skill and readiness levels exhibit varying personality traits, and the difference between successful and unsuccessful athletes may lie in these traits. For this reason, many personality theorists have sought to predict individuals' success and behavior by understanding their personality traits. Self-differentiation is a psychological construct that provides the necessary foundation for social-relational adjustment. Differentiation involves an intrapersonal capacity to differentiate between thoughts and feelings, as well as an interpersonal ability to maintain independence within deep relationships with significant people in life. On the other hand, based on the theory of sensitivity to reinforcement (RST), many observed individual differences in personality and psychological characteristics originate from two major and minor brain systems (BIS and BAS). The activity and predominance of each of these systems in a person lead to different emotional states, coping methods, actions, and reactions. The results of psychological and neurophysiological studies have shown that regular exercise plays an essential role in improving brain and cognitive performance, and the reactions shown by athletes contain important information about the psychological processes in the brain. Therefore, considering the principle of individual differences in psychological categories and the orientation of reinforcement theory in explaining these differences in brain structures, and the lack of studies in this field, it is necessary to carry out research for a better understanding of the issue. The aim of this study was to compare brain-behavioral systems and self-differentiation between female students who are athletes and non-athletes. Material and Methods This research falls within the category of applied research and is a causal-comparative study. The statistical population consisted of all female high school students in Ardabil (N=7477). The criterion for selecting student-athletes was having at least a provincial-level title and three years of regular sports activity with at least three training sessions per week. All eligible student-athletes (n=100) who met the necessary criteria and 100 non-athlete students were randomly selected using a multi-stage cluster sampling method and assigned to two groups. To gather data, the standardized self-differentiation questionnaire by Skoron and Fridlander (1998) and Carver and White's (1994) behavioral inhibition system/behavioral activation system scale were used. The self-differentiation questionnaire consists of 46 questions and four subscales: emotional reactivity, I-position, emotional cutoff, and fusion with others. The behavioral inhibition system/behavioral activation system questionnaire has 24 questions and includes two subscales: behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral activation system (BAS). The response scale of both questionnaires was Likert type. The validity of the questionnaires was evaluated and confirmed using the opinions of some sports experts. In the present study, Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the self-differentiation questionnaire was 0.78. For the subscales of emotional reactivity, it was 0.73, 0.75, 0.75, and 0.80, respectively. Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the behavioral activation system and behavioral inhibition system were 0.77 and 0.76, respectively, indicating high internal consistency of the questionnaire items. Based on the results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and due to the normal distribution of the data and the fulfillment of some necessary assumptions, the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) test was used to analyze the data. Results In Table 1, the results of the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicate a significant difference between the behavioral activation system and self-differentiation in the two groups. In other words, the mean scores for behavioral activation and self-differentiation were higher in the female athlete group compared to the non-athlete group. The biggest difference between the two groups was related to self-differentiation. Discussion The results show a significant difference between the behavioral activation system and self-differentiation in the two groups. Engaging in sports activities and participating in sports as a social activity can alter individuals' functional differentiation, leading to improved interpersonal relationships and individuals achieving a more independent and accurate individual identity. This individual independence becomes a lifestyle for athletes, resulting in increased individual differentiation and less fusion and emotional avoidance when facing problems. Overall, sports activities promote a positive outlook and increase individuals' focus on their existential aspects, leading to greater differentiation in athletes compared to non-athletes. Furthermore, results from psychological and neurophysiological studies suggest that regular exercise significantly improves brain and cognitive function. To achieve optimal performance, individuals need a high activation system and a low inhibition system. It is possible that brain systems are influenced by physical activity and regular exercise, with the activation system becoming dominant in athletes due to repeated sports activities. Another possibility is that brain systems are genetically inherited, leading individuals with a dominant activation system to have a greater inclination towards physical activity and sports. Further research is needed to clarify these possibilities. In conclusion, it appears that the brain and behavioral systems, as well as the degree of differentiation, are linked to the level of sports participation. Understanding these concepts can be valuable components in the psychological and sports performance analysis of individuals. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First author: Data collection and data analysis; First and Second author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology, writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the students who cooperated in the present research. Background and Purpose In the world of sports, in addition to physical and tactical preparation, psychological and personality characteristics are considered influencing factors on the optimal performance of athletes. Athletes at different skill and readiness levels exhibit varying personality traits, and the difference between successful and unsuccessful athletes may lie in these traits. For this reason, many personality theorists have sought to predict individuals' success and behavior by understanding their personality traits. Self-differentiation is a psychological construct that provides the necessary foundation for social-relational adjustment. Differentiation involves an intrapersonal capacity to differentiate between thoughts and feelings, as well as an interpersonal ability to maintain independence within deep relationships with significant people in life. On the other hand, based on the theory of sensitivity to reinforcement (RST), many observed individual differences in personality and psychological characteristics originate from two major and minor brain systems (BIS and BAS). The activity and predominance of each of these systems in a person lead to different emotional states, coping methods, actions, and reactions. The results of psychological and neurophysiological studies have shown that regular exercise plays an essential role in improving brain and cognitive performance, and the reactions shown by athletes contain important information about the psychological processes in the brain. Therefore, considering the principle of individual differences in psychological categories and the orientation of reinforcement theory in explaining these differences in brain structures, and the lack of studies in this field, it is necessary to carry out research for a better understanding of the issue. The aim of this study was to compare brain-behavioral systems and self-differentiation between female students who are athletes and non-athletes. Material and Methods This research falls within the category of applied research and is a causal-comparative study. The statistical population consisted of all female high school students in Ardabil (N=7477). The criterion for selecting student-athletes was having at least a provincial-level title and three years of regular sports activity with at least three training sessions per week. All eligible student-athletes (n=100) who met the necessary criteria and 100 non-athlete students were randomly selected using a multi-stage cluster sampling method and assigned to two groups. To gather data, the standardized self-differentiation questionnaire by Skoron and Fridlander (1998) and Carver and White's (1994) behavioral inhibition system/behavioral activation system scale were used. The self-differentiation questionnaire consists of 46 questions and four subscales: emotional reactivity, I-position, emotional cutoff, and fusion with others. The behavioral inhibition system/behavioral activation system questionnaire has 24 questions and includes two subscales: behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral activation system (BAS). The response scale of both questionnaires was Likert type. The validity of the questionnaires was evaluated and confirmed using the opinions of some sports experts. In the present study, Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the self-differentiation questionnaire was 0.78. For the subscales of emotional reactivity, it was 0.73, 0.75, 0.75, and 0.80, respectively. Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the behavioral activation system and behavioral inhibition system were 0.77 and 0.76, respectively, indicating high internal consistency of the questionnaire items. Based on the results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and due to the normal distribution of the data and the fulfillment of some necessary assumptions, the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) test was used to analyze the data. Results In Table 1, the results of the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicate a significant difference between the behavioral activation system and self-differentiation in the two groups. In other words, the mean scores for behavioral activation and self-differentiation were higher in the female athlete group compared to the non-athlete group. The biggest difference between the two groups was related to self-differentiation. Discussion The results show a significant difference between the behavioral activation system and self-differentiation in the two groups. Engaging in sports activities and participating in sports as a social activity can alter individuals' functional differentiation, leading to improved interpersonal relationships and individuals achieving a more independent and accurate individual identity. This individual independence becomes a lifestyle for athletes, resulting in increased individual differentiation and less fusion and emotional avoidance when facing problems. Overall, sports activities promote a positive outlook and increase individuals' focus on their existential aspects, leading to greater differentiation in athletes compared to non-athletes. Furthermore, results from psychological and neurophysiological studies suggest that regular exercise significantly improves brain and cognitive function. To achieve optimal performance, individuals need a high activation system and a low inhibition system. It is possible that brain systems are influenced by physical activity and regular exercise, with the activation system becoming dominant in athletes due to repeated sports activities. Another possibility is that brain systems are genetically inherited, leading individuals with a dominant activation system to have a greater inclination towards physical activity and sports. Further research is needed to clarify these possibilities. In conclusion, it appears that the brain and behavioral systems, as well as the degree of differentiation, are linked to the level of sports participation. Understanding these concepts can be valuable components in the psychological and sports performance analysis of individuals. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Authors' contributions First author: Data collection and data analysis; First and Second author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology, writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the students who cooperated in the present research.

https://spsyj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4372_1e51e0f3b6b60070219ccb91bb619a6b.pdf

Sport Sciences Research institute Sport Psychology Studies 2345-2978 13 49 2024 09 22 Development of a Structural Model for the Perception of Sports Success Based on Sports Perfectionism and Perceived Social Support with the Mediating Role of Sports Self-Regulation on Youth with Brain Damage Disorder (Cerebral Palsy - CP) Development of a Structural Model for the Perception of Sports Success Based on Sports Perfectionism and Perceived Social Support with the Mediating Role of Sports Self-Regulation on Youth with Brain Damage Disorder (Cerebral Palsy - CP) 147 163 4393 10.22089/spsyj.2024.14011.2383 FA Navid Mahtab Department of Sports Management, Islamic Azad University, Qorveh Branch, Iran 0000-0002-0936-7381 Faraz Divani Department of Sports Management, Islamic Azad University, Qorveh Branch, Iran 0000-0001-9302-6899 FARHAD KAZEMI Department of Mathematics, Qorveh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qorveh, Iran 0000-0002-5738-0185 Atefeh Taimori Department of literature, Qorveh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qorveh, Iran 0000-0001-9998-0130 Journal Article 2023 06 08 Background and Purpose Success in sport is a phenomenon that brings joy not only to the athlete but also to the general public and sports fans. This has heightened the importance of sporting achievements, reflected in the advancement of public mental well-being policies. One specific aspect of these policies is the argument that investing in international sporting success and the pride derived from it leads to enhanced mental well-being (Mahtab et al., 2020). Currently, the discussion on the public value of sports in civilizations is a hot topic among policymakers, social networks, businesses, educational centers, etc., focusing on its impact on mental health, mental well-being, and the welfare of various segments of society (Mahtab et al., 2022). Sporting success is not exclusive to healthy individuals; those with disabilities can also achieve significant sporting success, positively impacting their psychological functioning (Cardenas, 2021). Reports indicate that globally, one in every 17 people has some form of disability (Cox & Hill, 2018). Despite the normalization of disabilities, individuals with disabilities often struggle with negative self-perceptions, reinforcing discrimination, bias, rights violations, loss of independence, and greater social deprivation (Vilchynski et al., 2020). For instance, individuals with disabilities face challenges in accessing higher education (Watson et al., 2017), employment (Johnson et al., 2022), healthcare (Polykandrioti et al., 2020), and physical activities (Lee et al., 2022). These individuals often perceive themselves as useless in the eyes of others, exacerbating their negative thoughts about leading a purposeful and normal life (Lawrenson, 2022). Given these psychological challenges, examining the factors influencing attitudes toward individuals with disabilities becomes crucial. Cerebral palsy (CP), a neurodevelopmental disorder abbreviated as CP in this study, occurs due to brain damage in the early stages of development (Krieger, 2006). Many experts argue that, in addition to physical abilities, certain psychomotor factors are equally important for success in various sports. One critical variable affecting sporting success is sports self-regulation. According to Bandura's theory, self-regulation involves the application of self-directing abilities, self-control, and autonomy. Low sports self-regulation makes beginners and inactive individuals less inclined to engage in structured physical activities. Various studies on psychological self-regulation have shown that self-regulation affects immune function, the effectiveness of sports activities on cognitive emotion regulation strategies, perceived psychological stress, and the mental resilience of disabled individuals. Perceived social support is another variable related to sports self-regulation. Evidence suggests that perceived social support can facilitate adaptation to stress, self-regulation of stress, emotion regulation, outcome expectations, and the development of psychological skills such as self-talk, focus, and arousal regulation (Carvalho, 2022). However, perfectionism is a stable tendency to strive for unattainable and flawless standards, accompanied by critical self-evaluation of performance (Mohammadzadeh et al., 2022). Social perfectionism is a characteristic of individuals who believe that others expect perfect and flawless performance from them (Hewitt et al., 2017). While other studies describe perfectionism as a maladaptive trait that hinders rather than helps athletic performance. Individuals with CP often experience muscle weakness and poor aerobic fitness, which can affect their ability to perform activities such as standing, walking, running, and participating in daily life (Smith et al., 2021). Health professionals often prescribe exercise to improve motor function in individuals with CP. However, there has been no comprehensive evaluation of the effectiveness of sports interventions on perceived social support and perfectionism in individuals with CP. Research indicates that self-regulation capabilities in individuals with CP are lower than in their healthy peers, necessitating sports interventions to strengthen these abilities. A lack of optimal motor capabilities in these individuals can limit their ability to perform daily and essential activities. Despite most previous research reporting that athletic activity improves the perfectionism traits and regulatory role of individuals with CP, it is expected that the results of the present study will provide a suitable guide for identifying appropriate exercises and sports interventions to further improve the motor capabilities of individuals with mental disabilities. Material and Methods This study is applied in nature, as it aims to enhance the performance and sporting success of athletes. Methodologically, it is a correlational study of a descriptive type, as it seeks to develop a causal model of athletic success using a structural equation modeling approach. The statistical population of this study included all individuals with CP in Sanandaj who participated in sports activities. Based on existing statistics from sports facilities and the Welfare Organization, the population size of these young athletes was 3,780 individuals. A simple random sampling method was used, and, a sample size of 305 individuals was selected for the study using Cochran's formula. Four scales were used to collect data: sports perfectionism, sports self-regulation, perceived social support, and perceived athletic success. Data analysis was conducted in two sections: descriptive and inferential statistics. The descriptive section utilized central tendency and dispersion indices, while the inferential section employed structural equation modeling with AMOS software. Results Table 1 displays the model results, with comparative and incremental fit indices of 0.89 and 0.87, respectively. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was 0.083, and the root mean square residual (RMR) was 0.076. The CMIN/DF value was 2.064. Overall, these five indices suggest that the model is appropriate and the modified model is acceptable. Conclusion Regular participation in sports serves as a powerful tool for enabling individuals with disabilities to lead fulfilling lives, going beyond mere entertainment to provide therapeutic and preventive benefits against the consequences of disability. Sports help combat negative attitudes, disability-related depression, isolation, and other issues, making individuals with disabilities more resilient and reducing or eliminating these adverse effects. The structural equation results of this study, focused on developing a model of athletic success, revealed that sports perfectionism and perceived social support directly and indirectly impact athletic success through self-regulation. Self-regulation also directly influences athletic success and acts as a mediating factor in the relationships between sports perfectionism, perceived social support, and athletic success. Sporting achievements are crucial for enhancing happiness and quality of life across all age groups, making them a key focus for researchers. Athletic success and various sports accomplishments are primarily driven by athletes' perception of success. The study findings indicated that perceived sports success is influenced by sports perfectionism, with a positive correlation between positive perfectionism and athletic success, and a negative correlation between negative perfectionism and athletic success. However, only positive perfectionism significantly predicts changes in athletic success. This relationship can be explained by the fact that positive perfectionism leads to realistic satisfaction with behavior and a drive to achieve success. Additionally, perceived social support plays a significant role in predicting athletic success, with higher levels of perceived social support associated with greater athletic success. Another essential factor in enhancing athletic success identified in this study is sports self-regulation. The results suggest that self-regulation not only directly increases athletic success but also plays a crucial mediating role in improving athletic success through perceived social support and sports perfectionism. Overall, various researchers argue that self-regulation has a positive and significant relationship with sporting success and advancement. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Compliance with ethical guidelines The research plan was prepared based on the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Islamic Azad University Ethics Committee and the Human Research Review Board with No. IR.IAU.SDJ.REC.1401.071. Authors' contributions First and Fourth author: Data collection and data analysis; Second and Third author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology, and data analysis. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the people who participated in this research. Background and Purpose Success in sport is a phenomenon that brings joy not only to the athlete but also to the general public and sports fans. This has heightened the importance of sporting achievements, reflected in the advancement of public mental well-being policies. One specific aspect of these policies is the argument that investing in international sporting success and the pride derived from it leads to enhanced mental well-being (Mahtab et al., 2020). Currently, the discussion on the public value of sports in civilizations is a hot topic among policymakers, social networks, businesses, educational centers, etc., focusing on its impact on mental health, mental well-being, and the welfare of various segments of society (Mahtab et al., 2022). Sporting success is not exclusive to healthy individuals; those with disabilities can also achieve significant sporting success, positively impacting their psychological functioning (Cardenas, 2021). Reports indicate that globally, one in every 17 people has some form of disability (Cox & Hill, 2018). Despite the normalization of disabilities, individuals with disabilities often struggle with negative self-perceptions, reinforcing discrimination, bias, rights violations, loss of independence, and greater social deprivation (Vilchynski et al., 2020). For instance, individuals with disabilities face challenges in accessing higher education (Watson et al., 2017), employment (Johnson et al., 2022), healthcare (Polykandrioti et al., 2020), and physical activities (Lee et al., 2022). These individuals often perceive themselves as useless in the eyes of others, exacerbating their negative thoughts about leading a purposeful and normal life (Lawrenson, 2022). Given these psychological challenges, examining the factors influencing attitudes toward individuals with disabilities becomes crucial. Cerebral palsy (CP), a neurodevelopmental disorder abbreviated as CP in this study, occurs due to brain damage in the early stages of development (Krieger, 2006). Many experts argue that, in addition to physical abilities, certain psychomotor factors are equally important for success in various sports. One critical variable affecting sporting success is sports self-regulation. According to Bandura's theory, self-regulation involves the application of self-directing abilities, self-control, and autonomy. Low sports self-regulation makes beginners and inactive individuals less inclined to engage in structured physical activities. Various studies on psychological self-regulation have shown that self-regulation affects immune function, the effectiveness of sports activities on cognitive emotion regulation strategies, perceived psychological stress, and the mental resilience of disabled individuals. Perceived social support is another variable related to sports self-regulation. Evidence suggests that perceived social support can facilitate adaptation to stress, self-regulation of stress, emotion regulation, outcome expectations, and the development of psychological skills such as self-talk, focus, and arousal regulation (Carvalho, 2022). However, perfectionism is a stable tendency to strive for unattainable and flawless standards, accompanied by critical self-evaluation of performance (Mohammadzadeh et al., 2022). Social perfectionism is a characteristic of individuals who believe that others expect perfect and flawless performance from them (Hewitt et al., 2017). While other studies describe perfectionism as a maladaptive trait that hinders rather than helps athletic performance. Individuals with CP often experience muscle weakness and poor aerobic fitness, which can affect their ability to perform activities such as standing, walking, running, and participating in daily life (Smith et al., 2021). Health professionals often prescribe exercise to improve motor function in individuals with CP. However, there has been no comprehensive evaluation of the effectiveness of sports interventions on perceived social support and perfectionism in individuals with CP. Research indicates that self-regulation capabilities in individuals with CP are lower than in their healthy peers, necessitating sports interventions to strengthen these abilities. A lack of optimal motor capabilities in these individuals can limit their ability to perform daily and essential activities. Despite most previous research reporting that athletic activity improves the perfectionism traits and regulatory role of individuals with CP, it is expected that the results of the present study will provide a suitable guide for identifying appropriate exercises and sports interventions to further improve the motor capabilities of individuals with mental disabilities. Material and Methods This study is applied in nature, as it aims to enhance the performance and sporting success of athletes. Methodologically, it is a correlational study of a descriptive type, as it seeks to develop a causal model of athletic success using a structural equation modeling approach. The statistical population of this study included all individuals with CP in Sanandaj who participated in sports activities. Based on existing statistics from sports facilities and the Welfare Organization, the population size of these young athletes was 3,780 individuals. A simple random sampling method was used, and, a sample size of 305 individuals was selected for the study using Cochran's formula. Four scales were used to collect data: sports perfectionism, sports self-regulation, perceived social support, and perceived athletic success. Data analysis was conducted in two sections: descriptive and inferential statistics. The descriptive section utilized central tendency and dispersion indices, while the inferential section employed structural equation modeling with AMOS software. Results Table 1 displays the model results, with comparative and incremental fit indices of 0.89 and 0.87, respectively. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was 0.083, and the root mean square residual (RMR) was 0.076. The CMIN/DF value was 2.064. Overall, these five indices suggest that the model is appropriate and the modified model is acceptable. Conclusion Regular participation in sports serves as a powerful tool for enabling individuals with disabilities to lead fulfilling lives, going beyond mere entertainment to provide therapeutic and preventive benefits against the consequences of disability. Sports help combat negative attitudes, disability-related depression, isolation, and other issues, making individuals with disabilities more resilient and reducing or eliminating these adverse effects. The structural equation results of this study, focused on developing a model of athletic success, revealed that sports perfectionism and perceived social support directly and indirectly impact athletic success through self-regulation. Self-regulation also directly influences athletic success and acts as a mediating factor in the relationships between sports perfectionism, perceived social support, and athletic success. Sporting achievements are crucial for enhancing happiness and quality of life across all age groups, making them a key focus for researchers. Athletic success and various sports accomplishments are primarily driven by athletes' perception of success. The study findings indicated that perceived sports success is influenced by sports perfectionism, with a positive correlation between positive perfectionism and athletic success, and a negative correlation between negative perfectionism and athletic success. However, only positive perfectionism significantly predicts changes in athletic success. This relationship can be explained by the fact that positive perfectionism leads to realistic satisfaction with behavior and a drive to achieve success. Additionally, perceived social support plays a significant role in predicting athletic success, with higher levels of perceived social support associated with greater athletic success. Another essential factor in enhancing athletic success identified in this study is sports self-regulation. The results suggest that self-regulation not only directly increases athletic success but also plays a crucial mediating role in improving athletic success through perceived social support and sports perfectionism. Overall, various researchers argue that self-regulation has a positive and significant relationship with sporting success and advancement. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization. Compliance with ethical guidelines The research plan was prepared based on the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Islamic Azad University Ethics Committee and the Human Research Review Board with No. IR.IAU.SDJ.REC.1401.071. Authors' contributions First and Fourth author: Data collection and data analysis; Second and Third author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology, and data analysis. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Conflicts of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank and appreciate all the people who participated in this research.

https://spsyj.ssrc.ac.ir/article_4393_03593ce517feac573fdaafa6dcedef61.pdf