The Effect of Gender and Circadian Rhythm on the Performance of Motor Memory and Achievement Motivation in Youth

Document Type : Original research

Authors
Parvaneh Shamsipour Dehkordi 1
fatemeh najafian 2
fatemeh mir 3
1 Assistant professor, Alzahra University
2 Alzahra university
3 Azahra Universality
10.22089/spsyj.2018.5531.1577
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare the motor memory function and the motivation of progress in male and female students with different daily rhythm. The statistical sample included 50 morning active participants (25 females and 25 males) and 40 evening active participants (17 females and 23 males). Research tools included Horn Stenberg's Morning-Evening Questionnaire, Hermann's Progress Motivation Questionnaire, and Chain Color Matching Software. Findings showed that the progression for the variable of motor memory function of the interactive effect of gender on the daily rhythm was not significant. Comparison of means showed that evening active males had the highest mean of motor memory, while morning active females had the weakest level of motor memory function. For the progress motivation variables, results showed that the interactive effect of gender and daily rhythm was not significant, but the main effect of the daily rhythm was significant. The results of Tukey post hoc test showed that there was a significant difference between the progress motivation in males with evening rhythm and progress motivation of females with morning rhythm. Male students with an evening rhythm had the lowest score of progress motivation, and female students with the morning rhythm had the highest score of progress motivation.

Highlights

  1. Armstrong, L. (2002). The impact of the environment on sports activities. Translated by  Gaeeni, A.A., et al. Samt  Publishers.  p. 301-253. In Persian
  2. Adan, A., & Almiran, A. (1991). Influence of morningnesseveningness preference in the relationship between body temperature and performance: A diurnal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 1159-1169.
  3. Adam, J., Paas, F., Buekers, M., Wuyts, I., Spijkers, W., & Wallmeyer, P. (1999). Gender differences in choice reaction time: Evidence for differential strategies. Ergonomics, 42, 327-240.
  4. Atkinson, G., Reilly, T. (1996). Circadian variation in sport performance. Journal sport Med, 21(4),  292-312.
  5. Atkinson, G., Coldwells, A., Reilly, T., & Waterhouse, J. (1993). A comparison of circadian rhythms in work performance between physically active and inactive subjects. Ergonomics, 36, 273–281.
  6. Barbara, E.B. (1977). The Effect of Circadian Rhythms and Personality on Mental Performance. Pages 34–36.
  7. Biabangard, S. (1997). Procedures increase self-esteem on children and younger. Tehran: Council of Sonnat-Moallem Publication. In Persian
  8. Brown, F.M., Neft, E.E., LaJambe, C.M. (2008). Collegiate rowing crew performance varies by morningness-eveningness. J Strength Cond Res, 22, 1894-900.
  9. Boivin, D.B., Czeisler, C.A., Dijk, D.J., (1997). Complex interaction of the sleep-wake cycle and circadian phase modulates mood in healthy subjects. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 54, 145–152.
  10. Colleen, A. McClung, Ph.D. (2011). Circadian Rhythms and Mood Regulation: Insights from Pre- Clinical Models. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 21(Suppl 4), 683– 693.
  11. Coldwells, A. Atkinson, G. Reilly, T. (1994). Sources of variation in back and leg dynamometry. Ergonomic, 37, 79-86.
  12. Cohen, D.A., Wang, W., Wyatt, J.K., et al. (2010) Uncovering residual effects of chronic sleep loss on human performance. Sci. Transl. Med, 2, (3-14).
  13. Chelminski, J. Ferraro, F. R.,  Petros, T. & Plaud, J. J. (1997). Horn and Ostburg Questionnaire: A score distribution in large sample of young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 647-652.
  14. Czeisler, C.A., Dijk, D.J., Duffy, J.F., (1994).  Entrained phase of the circadian pacemaker serves to stabilize alertness and performance throughout the habitual waking day. In: Ogilvie, RD.; Harsh, JR., editors. Sleep Onset: Normal and Abnormal Processes. American Psychological Association; Washington, p, 89-110.
  15. Christopher, E. Kline1,2, J. Larry, D.1, J. Mark, D.1, Teresa, A. Moore1, Tina M. Devlin,1, and Shawn, D. (2010). Youngstedt1,2Circadian rhythms of psychomotor vigilance, mood, and sleepiness in the ultra-short sleep/wake protocol Chronobiol Int.  27(1), 161–180.
  16. Debarnot, U., Castellani, F., Valenza, G., Sebastiani, L., Guillot A., (2011). Daytime naps improve motor imagery learning. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience. 11(4): 541-550.   
  17. Dijk, D.J., Duffy, J.F., Czeisler, C.A. (1992). Circadian and sleep/wake dependent aspects of subjective alertness and cognitive performance. J Sleep Res, 1,112–117.
  18. Folkard, S. (1980). A note on Time of day effects in school children's immediate and delayed recall of meaning ful material. The influence of the importance of the information tested, British. Journal of psychology, 71, 95-97.
  19. Goldstein, D. Hahn, C. Hasher, L. Wiprzycka, U. & Zelazo, P. (2007). Time of day, intellectual performance, and behavioral problems in Morning versus Evening type adolescents: Is there a synchrony effect? Personality and individual differences, 42(3), 431-440.
  20. Grady, S. Aeschbach, D. Wright, K. P. Jr., Czeisler, C.A. (2010). Effect of modafinil on impairments in neurobehavioral performance and learning associated with extended wakefulness and circadian misalignment. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 1910–1920.
  21. Ghadiri, F. Rashidy-Pour, A. Bahram, A.  Zahediasl, S. (2012). Effects of stress related acute exercise on consolidation of implicit motor memory. Koomesh, 2(46), 233-223.  In Persian
  22. Gheysen, F., van, O. F., Roggeman, C., Van, W. H., Fias, W. (2010). Hippocampal contribution to early and later stages of implicit motor sequence learning, Experimental Brain Research, 187: 221-229.
  23. Giuseppe, Piccion, Anna Assenza,Fortunata,(2004). Daily rhythm of circulatory fat soluble vitamin concentration (A, D, E, K) in the horse, journal of circadian rhythm,  2:3
  24. Hull, J.T., Wright, K.P., Czeisler, C.A. (2003). The influence of subjective alertness and motivation on human performance independent of circadian and homeostatic regulation. J  Biol  Rhythms, 18, 329–338.
  25. Hosseini Tabatabaei, F. (2008). The causes of academic achievement of girls compared with boys in the provinces of Khorasan. Knowl Res Educ Sci, 147:119.  In Persian
  26. Horne, J. & Ostberg, O. (1976). A self-assessment questionnaire to determine morningness-eveningness in human circadian rhythms. International journal of chronobiology, 4(2), 97.
  27. Joseph, T. Hull, Kenneth, P. Wright, J.r. and Charles, A. Czeisler. (2003). The Influence of Subjective Alertness and Motivation on Human Performance Independent of Circadian. Journal of Biological Rhythms.18:329.
  28. Emens, J.s., Berman, A.M., SS Thosar,S. S., Butler, M. P.,  Roberts, S.A., Clemons, N. A., Herzig, M. X., Morimoto, M. Bowles, N.P., AW McHill, A. W. (2017).  Positive and negative affect both contribute to the endogenous circadian rhythm in mood. Sleep, Volume 40, Issue suppl_1, 28.
  29. Jasper, I. Gordijn, M. Haubler, A. Hermsdorfer, J. (2011). Circadian rhythms in handwriting kinematics and legibility. Human Movement Science 30, 818–829.
  30. Keyvanzade, M.  & Keyvanzade, G.  Lavasani, M. (2008). Educational activities, achievement motivation, emotional intelligence. J.Educ Psychol Sci, 37(1), 99-123.
  31. Kosinski, J. R. (2005). A literature review of reaction time. Retrieved from http://Biae.clemson.edu/pbc/bp/Lab/110/reactiontime.htm
  32. Khodapanahi, M. K. (2001). Physiological Psychology. First Edition Samt Publications.  In Persian
  33. Lyons L, Roman, G. (2009). Circadian modulation Of short –term memory in Drosophila, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 16, 19-27.
  34. Lac, G.A. Chamoux. (2006). Do circannual rhythm of cortisol and testosterone interfere with variations induced by other events. Ann endocrinal (Paris). 67(1), 3-60.
  35. Lahtela, K., Niemi, P. And Kuusela, V (1985). Adult visual choice ± reaction time, age, sex and preparedness. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 26, 357 ± 362.
  36. Magill, RA., Anderson, DI. (2016). Motor learning and control: concepts and application. Human Kinetics.
  37. Melhim, A.f. (1993). Investigation of circadian rhythm in peak and mean power of Femal physiology education student sport Med, 14(6), 6-303.
  38. Natal, V. Cicogna, O. (2002). Morningness and eveningness dimension: Is it really a continuum? Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 809-816.
  39. Rahnama, N. Sajjadi, N. Bambaeichi, E. Sadeghipour, H.R., Daneshjoo, H. Nazary, B. (2009). Diurnal variation on the performance of soccer-specific skills. World J Sport Sci, 2, 27-30.
  40. Rahnama, N.  (2013). The effect of balance exercises in the morning and afternoon on the static and dynamic balance of the elderly. Research on sports managementand motor behavior. 11 (21), 15-24.  In Persian
  41. Razavianshad, M. (2006). Emotional intelligence with social adjustment and academic achievement in third grade tips Tabriz school year 2005-2006 [dissertation]. Tabriz: Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences.  In Persian
  42. Reilly, T. Atkinson, G. Waterhouse, J. (2000). Chronobiology and physical performance. In: Garrett, W.E., Jr., Kirkendall, D.T. eds. Exercise and sport science. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, PP: 351-372.
  43. Roberts, D. R., & Kyllonen, C. P. (1999). Morningnesseveningness and intelligence: Early to bed, early to rise will likely make you anything but wise! Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 1123-1133.
  44. Rodahl, S.O., Brien, M. Firth, P.R. (2003). Diurnal variation in performance of competitive swimming. Journal sprot med phys fitness, 16, 72-76.
  45. Reinberg, A. Ghata, J. (1982). Rhythms of biological.Parise:P.U.F.
  46. Ryan, W. Logan. Wilbur, P. Williams, III*, and Colleen A. McClung. (2014). Circadian rhythms and addiction: Mechanistic insights and future directions. Behav Neurosci, 128(3), 387–412.
  47. Rahmani nia, F. (2003). The foundations and application of motor learning. Tehran.
  48. Saei, R. (1999). Industrious, compassionate: Studying the factors affecting academic achievement and agricultural colleges offer appropriate educational approach [dissertation]. Shiraz: University of Shiraz.  In Persian
  49. Sack, R.L. Auckley, D. Auger, R. R., Carskadon, M.A., Wright, K.P., Jr, et al. (2007). Circadian rhythm sleep disorders: part II, advanced sleep phase disorder, delayed sleep phase disorder, free-running.
  50. Simon, J. R. (1967). Choice reaction time as a function of auditory S ± R correspondence, age and sex, Ergonomics, 10, 659 ± 664.
  51. Squarcini, C. Pires, M. Lopes, C. Benedito-Silva, A. Esteves, A. Cornelissen- Guillaume, G. et al. (2013). Free-running circadian rhythms of muscle strength, reaction time, and body temperature in totally blind people. Eur J Appl Physiol, 113, 157-65.
  52. Shirani, A.  St Louis, E.K. (2009). Illuminating rationale and uses for light therapy. J Clin Sleep Med 5, 155-163.  In Persian
  53. Smolensky, M. H., Dalonzo, G.E. (1993). Medical chronobiology concepts and appications, Am, Rev, Respir 147, 2-19. 
  54. Talebpoor, A. Nori, A.  Molavi, H. )2003). The effect cognitive instruction on stay seat, achievement motive and student academic achievement Shahed. Psychology J, 6(1), 21-9.  In Persian
  55. Trine, M. R. Morgan, WP. (1995). Influence of time day on psychological response to exercise. Journal sport Med. 20(5), PP, 328-337
  56. Vofouri, J., Keramati, H. (2017). Educational impact of study methods with emphasis on cognitive and metacognitive strategies on academic achievement and student achievement motivation. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, Vol. 5, No. 2, p (35-46). In Persian
  57. Wyse, JP, Mercer, TH, Gleeson, NP. (1994). Time-of-day dependence of isokinetic leg strength and associated interday variability. Br J Sports Med،28, 167-70.
  58. Winston, C, Eccles, JS, Senior, A, M, Vida M. The utility of expectancy value and disidentification modls for understanding ethnic group differences in academic performance and self-esteem. J zeitschrift Fuer Paedago Gische Psychol. 1997,11(3-4). 177-86.
  59. Wyatt, J, K, Ritz-De Cecco A, Czeisler, C, A, Dijk, D. J. (1999). Circadian temperature and melatonin rhythms, sleep, and neurobehavioral function in humans living on a 20-h day. Am. J. Physiol, 277, 1152–1163.
  60. Zhou, X. Ferguson, S. A., Matthews, R. W., Sargent C, et al. (2011). Sleep, Wake and Phase Dependent Changes in Neurobehavioral Function under Forced Desynchrony. Sleep, 34, 931–941.
  61. Ziaei, M.  (2007).  Relationship between the grades of the board type and the reaction time of students at two times in the morning and evening. New Cognitive Science, 9 (2), 47-53.  In Persian
  62. Zelinski, E.L., Deibel, S.H., McDonald, R. J. (2014). The trouble with circadian clock dysfunction: Multiple deleterious effects on the brain and body. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 40, 80-101.

Keywords
Body Biology Clock
Serial Color Matching Task
Motor Memory
Students

Main Subjects

  1. Armstrong, L. (2002). The impact of the environment on sports activities. Translated by  Gaeeni, A.A., et al. Samt  Publishers.  p. 301-253. In Persian
  2. Adan, A., & Almiran, A. (1991). Influence of morningnesseveningness preference in the relationship between body temperature and performance: A diurnal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 1159-1169.
  3. Adam, J., Paas, F., Buekers, M., Wuyts, I., Spijkers, W., & Wallmeyer, P. (1999). Gender differences in choice reaction time: Evidence for differential strategies. Ergonomics, 42, 327-240.
  4. Atkinson, G., Reilly, T. (1996). Circadian variation in sport performance. Journal sport Med, 21(4),  292-312.
  5. Atkinson, G., Coldwells, A., Reilly, T., & Waterhouse, J. (1993). A comparison of circadian rhythms in work performance between physically active and inactive subjects. Ergonomics, 36, 273–281.
  6. Barbara, E.B. (1977). The Effect of Circadian Rhythms and Personality on Mental Performance. Pages 34–36.
  7. Biabangard, S. (1997). Procedures increase self-esteem on children and younger. Tehran: Council of Sonnat-Moallem Publication. In Persian
  8. Brown, F.M., Neft, E.E., LaJambe, C.M. (2008). Collegiate rowing crew performance varies by morningness-eveningness. J Strength Cond Res, 22, 1894-900.
  9. Boivin, D.B., Czeisler, C.A., Dijk, D.J., (1997). Complex interaction of the sleep-wake cycle and circadian phase modulates mood in healthy subjects. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 54, 145–152.
  10. Colleen, A. McClung, Ph.D. (2011). Circadian Rhythms and Mood Regulation: Insights from Pre- Clinical Models. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 21(Suppl 4), 683– 693.
  11. Coldwells, A. Atkinson, G. Reilly, T. (1994). Sources of variation in back and leg dynamometry. Ergonomic, 37, 79-86.
  12. Cohen, D.A., Wang, W., Wyatt, J.K., et al. (2010) Uncovering residual effects of chronic sleep loss on human performance. Sci. Transl. Med, 2, (3-14).
  13. Chelminski, J. Ferraro, F. R.,  Petros, T. & Plaud, J. J. (1997). Horn and Ostburg Questionnaire: A score distribution in large sample of young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 647-652.
  14. Czeisler, C.A., Dijk, D.J., Duffy, J.F., (1994).  Entrained phase of the circadian pacemaker serves to stabilize alertness and performance throughout the habitual waking day. In: Ogilvie, RD.; Harsh, JR., editors. Sleep Onset: Normal and Abnormal Processes. American Psychological Association; Washington, p, 89-110.
  15. Christopher, E. Kline1,2, J. Larry, D.1, J. Mark, D.1, Teresa, A. Moore1, Tina M. Devlin,1, and Shawn, D. (2010). Youngstedt1,2Circadian rhythms of psychomotor vigilance, mood, and sleepiness in the ultra-short sleep/wake protocol Chronobiol Int.  27(1), 161–180.
  16. Debarnot, U., Castellani, F., Valenza, G., Sebastiani, L., Guillot A., (2011). Daytime naps improve motor imagery learning. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience. 11(4): 541-550.   
  17. Dijk, D.J., Duffy, J.F., Czeisler, C.A. (1992). Circadian and sleep/wake dependent aspects of subjective alertness and cognitive performance. J Sleep Res, 1,112–117.
  18. Folkard, S. (1980). A note on Time of day effects in school children's immediate and delayed recall of meaning ful material. The influence of the importance of the information tested, British. Journal of psychology, 71, 95-97.
  19. Goldstein, D. Hahn, C. Hasher, L. Wiprzycka, U. & Zelazo, P. (2007). Time of day, intellectual performance, and behavioral problems in Morning versus Evening type adolescents: Is there a synchrony effect? Personality and individual differences, 42(3), 431-440.
  20. Grady, S. Aeschbach, D. Wright, K. P. Jr., Czeisler, C.A. (2010). Effect of modafinil on impairments in neurobehavioral performance and learning associated with extended wakefulness and circadian misalignment. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 1910–1920.
  21. Ghadiri, F. Rashidy-Pour, A. Bahram, A.  Zahediasl, S. (2012). Effects of stress related acute exercise on consolidation of implicit motor memory. Koomesh, 2(46), 233-223.  In Persian
  22. Gheysen, F., van, O. F., Roggeman, C., Van, W. H., Fias, W. (2010). Hippocampal contribution to early and later stages of implicit motor sequence learning, Experimental Brain Research, 187: 221-229.
  23. Giuseppe, Piccion, Anna Assenza,Fortunata,(2004). Daily rhythm of circulatory fat soluble vitamin concentration (A, D, E, K) in the horse, journal of circadian rhythm,  2:3
  24. Hull, J.T., Wright, K.P., Czeisler, C.A. (2003). The influence of subjective alertness and motivation on human performance independent of circadian and homeostatic regulation. J  Biol  Rhythms, 18, 329–338.
  25. Hosseini Tabatabaei, F. (2008). The causes of academic achievement of girls compared with boys in the provinces of Khorasan. Knowl Res Educ Sci, 147:119.  In Persian
  26. Horne, J. & Ostberg, O. (1976). A self-assessment questionnaire to determine morningness-eveningness in human circadian rhythms. International journal of chronobiology, 4(2), 97.
  27. Joseph, T. Hull, Kenneth, P. Wright, J.r. and Charles, A. Czeisler. (2003). The Influence of Subjective Alertness and Motivation on Human Performance Independent of Circadian. Journal of Biological Rhythms.18:329.
  28. Emens, J.s., Berman, A.M., SS Thosar,S. S., Butler, M. P.,  Roberts, S.A., Clemons, N. A., Herzig, M. X., Morimoto, M. Bowles, N.P., AW McHill, A. W. (2017).  Positive and negative affect both contribute to the endogenous circadian rhythm in mood. Sleep, Volume 40, Issue suppl_1, 28.
  29. Jasper, I. Gordijn, M. Haubler, A. Hermsdorfer, J. (2011). Circadian rhythms in handwriting kinematics and legibility. Human Movement Science 30, 818–829.
  30. Keyvanzade, M.  & Keyvanzade, G.  Lavasani, M. (2008). Educational activities, achievement motivation, emotional intelligence. J.Educ Psychol Sci, 37(1), 99-123.
  31. Kosinski, J. R. (2005). A literature review of reaction time. Retrieved from http://Biae.clemson.edu/pbc/bp/Lab/110/reactiontime.htm
  32. Khodapanahi, M. K. (2001). Physiological Psychology. First Edition Samt Publications.  In Persian
  33. Lyons L, Roman, G. (2009). Circadian modulation Of short –term memory in Drosophila, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 16, 19-27.
  34. Lac, G.A. Chamoux. (2006). Do circannual rhythm of cortisol and testosterone interfere with variations induced by other events. Ann endocrinal (Paris). 67(1), 3-60.
  35. Lahtela, K., Niemi, P. And Kuusela, V (1985). Adult visual choice ± reaction time, age, sex and preparedness. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 26, 357 ± 362.
  36. Magill, RA., Anderson, DI. (2016). Motor learning and control: concepts and application. Human Kinetics.
  37. Melhim, A.f. (1993). Investigation of circadian rhythm in peak and mean power of Femal physiology education student sport Med, 14(6), 6-303.
  38. Natal, V. Cicogna, O. (2002). Morningness and eveningness dimension: Is it really a continuum? Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 809-816.
  39. Rahnama, N. Sajjadi, N. Bambaeichi, E. Sadeghipour, H.R., Daneshjoo, H. Nazary, B. (2009). Diurnal variation on the performance of soccer-specific skills. World J Sport Sci, 2, 27-30.
  40. Rahnama, N.  (2013). The effect of balance exercises in the morning and afternoon on the static and dynamic balance of the elderly. Research on sports managementand motor behavior. 11 (21), 15-24.  In Persian
  41. Razavianshad, M. (2006). Emotional intelligence with social adjustment and academic achievement in third grade tips Tabriz school year 2005-2006 [dissertation]. Tabriz: Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences.  In Persian
  42. Reilly, T. Atkinson, G. Waterhouse, J. (2000). Chronobiology and physical performance. In: Garrett, W.E., Jr., Kirkendall, D.T. eds. Exercise and sport science. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, PP: 351-372.
  43. Roberts, D. R., & Kyllonen, C. P. (1999). Morningnesseveningness and intelligence: Early to bed, early to rise will likely make you anything but wise! Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 1123-1133.
  44. Rodahl, S.O., Brien, M. Firth, P.R. (2003). Diurnal variation in performance of competitive swimming. Journal sprot med phys fitness, 16, 72-76.
  45. Reinberg, A. Ghata, J. (1982). Rhythms of biological.Parise:P.U.F.
  46. Ryan, W. Logan. Wilbur, P. Williams, III*, and Colleen A. McClung. (2014). Circadian rhythms and addiction: Mechanistic insights and future directions. Behav Neurosci, 128(3), 387–412.
  47. Rahmani nia, F. (2003). The foundations and application of motor learning. Tehran.
  48. Saei, R. (1999). Industrious, compassionate: Studying the factors affecting academic achievement and agricultural colleges offer appropriate educational approach [dissertation]. Shiraz: University of Shiraz.  In Persian
  49. Sack, R.L. Auckley, D. Auger, R. R., Carskadon, M.A., Wright, K.P., Jr, et al. (2007). Circadian rhythm sleep disorders: part II, advanced sleep phase disorder, delayed sleep phase disorder, free-running.
  50. Simon, J. R. (1967). Choice reaction time as a function of auditory S ± R correspondence, age and sex, Ergonomics, 10, 659 ± 664.
  51. Squarcini, C. Pires, M. Lopes, C. Benedito-Silva, A. Esteves, A. Cornelissen- Guillaume, G. et al. (2013). Free-running circadian rhythms of muscle strength, reaction time, and body temperature in totally blind people. Eur J Appl Physiol, 113, 157-65.
  52. Shirani, A.  St Louis, E.K. (2009). Illuminating rationale and uses for light therapy. J Clin Sleep Med 5, 155-163.  In Persian
  53. Smolensky, M. H., Dalonzo, G.E. (1993). Medical chronobiology concepts and appications, Am, Rev, Respir 147, 2-19. 
  54. Talebpoor, A. Nori, A.  Molavi, H. )2003). The effect cognitive instruction on stay seat, achievement motive and student academic achievement Shahed. Psychology J, 6(1), 21-9.  In Persian
  55. Trine, M. R. Morgan, WP. (1995). Influence of time day on psychological response to exercise. Journal sport Med. 20(5), PP, 328-337
  56. Vofouri, J., Keramati, H. (2017). Educational impact of study methods with emphasis on cognitive and metacognitive strategies on academic achievement and student achievement motivation. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, Vol. 5, No. 2, p (35-46). In Persian
  57. Wyse, JP, Mercer, TH, Gleeson, NP. (1994). Time-of-day dependence of isokinetic leg strength and associated interday variability. Br J Sports Med،28, 167-70.
  58. Winston, C, Eccles, JS, Senior, A, M, Vida M. The utility of expectancy value and disidentification modls for understanding ethnic group differences in academic performance and self-esteem. J zeitschrift Fuer Paedago Gische Psychol. 1997,11(3-4). 177-86.
  59. Wyatt, J, K, Ritz-De Cecco A, Czeisler, C, A, Dijk, D. J. (1999). Circadian temperature and melatonin rhythms, sleep, and neurobehavioral function in humans living on a 20-h day. Am. J. Physiol, 277, 1152–1163.
  60. Zhou, X. Ferguson, S. A., Matthews, R. W., Sargent C, et al. (2011). Sleep, Wake and Phase Dependent Changes in Neurobehavioral Function under Forced Desynchrony. Sleep, 34, 931–941.
  61. Ziaei, M.  (2007).  Relationship between the grades of the board type and the reaction time of students at two times in the morning and evening. New Cognitive Science, 9 (2), 47-53.  In Persian
  62. Zelinski, E.L., Deibel, S.H., McDonald, R. J. (2014). The trouble with circadian clock dysfunction: Multiple deleterious effects on the brain and body. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 40, 80-101.
Sport Psychology Studies
Volume 7, Issue 26
March 2019
Pages 195-212

  • Receive Date 12 February 2018
  • Revise Date 17 June 2018
  • Accept Date 07 October 2018