Sport Psychology Studies

Sport Psychology Studies

Effect of Physical and Imagery Training under Mental Fatigue Condition on Cognitive Effort among Basketball Novices

Document Type : Original research

Authors
1 PhD Student of Motor Behavior, Department of Sport Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences, School of Sport Science and Health, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
2 Assistant Professor of Motor Behavior, Department of Sport Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences, School of Sport Science and Health, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
3 Associate Professor of Motor Behavior, Department of Sport Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences, School of Sport Science and Health, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the effect of mental, physical, and combined training under mental fatigue condition on the cognitive effort of basketball novices. In this quasi-experimental study with pre-test and post-test design with three experimental groups, 33 novice girls (mean age 20.12 years) through a research call and after preliminary evaluations, were randomly assigned into three groups of Imagery Training (n = 11), Physical Training (n = 10), and Combined Training (n = 12) and participated in eight training sessions under moderate mental fatigue (60 minutes of executing Stroop task at the beginning of each session). Cognitive effort was measured based on the continuous performance test in the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up test. The results showed that the Stroop task in all eight training sessions similarly increased the levels of mental fatigue of the groups, however, the main and interaction effects of time and group on cognitive effort were not statistically significant. Accordingly, eight sessions of training under moderate mental fatigue do not have the required cognitive load to increase the cognitive effort of novices.
Keywords

Subjects


1.       Ackerman, P. L. (2011). Cognitive fatigue: Multidisciplinary perspectives on current research and future applications. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
2.       Ackerman, P. L., Tatel, C. E., & Lyndgaard, S. F. (2020). Subjective (dis)utility of effort: Mentally and physically demanding tasks. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 5(1), 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-020-00226-5
3.       Arghami, S., Ghoreishi, A., Kamali, K., & Farhadi, M. (2013). Investigating the consistency of mental fatigue measurements by visual analog scale (VAS) and Flicker fusion apparatus. Iranian Journal of Ergonomics, 1(1), 66-72. In Persian
4.       Badin, O. O., Smith, M. R., Conte, D., & Coutts, A. J. (2016). Mental fatigue impairs technical performance in small-sided soccer games. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 11(8), 1100-1105. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2015-0710
5.       Berger, I., Slobodin, O., Cassuto, H. (2017). Usefulness and validity of continuous performance tests in the diagnosis of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder children. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 32(1), 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acw101
6.       Boksem, M. A. S., & Tops, M. (2008). Mental fatigue: Costs and benefits. Brain Research Reviews, 59(1), 125–139.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.07.001
7.       Boksem, M. A. S., Meijman, T. F., & Lorist, M. M. (2005). Effects of mental fatigue on attention: An ERP study. Cognitive Brain Research, 25(1), 107–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.04.011
8.       Boksem, M. A. S., Meijman, T. F., & Lorist, M. M. (2006). Mental fatigue, motivation and action monitoring. Biological Psychology, 72, 123-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.08.007
9.       Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd Ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
10.    Cornblatt, B. A., Risch, N. J., Faris, G., Friedman, D., Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. (1988). The Continuous Performance Test, identical pairs version (CPT-IP): I. New findings about sustained attention in normal families. Psychiatry Research, 26(2), 223-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(88)90076-5
11.    Coutinho, D., Gonçalves, B., Wong, D. P., Travassos, B., Coutts, A. J., & Sampaio, J. (2018). Exploring the effects of mental and muscular fatigue in soccer players’ performance. Human Movement Science, 58, 287-296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2018.03.004
12.    Dana, A., & Gozalzadeh, E. (2017). Internal and external imagery effects on tennis skills among novices. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 124(5), 1022–1043. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512517719611
13.    Duncan, M. J., Fowler, N., George, O., Joyce, S., & Hankey, J. (2015). Mental fatigue negatively influences manual dexterity and anticipation timing but not repeated high-intensity exercise performance in trained adults. Research in Sports Medicine, 23(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/15438627.2014.975811
14.    Filipas, L., Gallo, G., Pollastri, L., & La Torre, A. (2019). Mental fatigue impairs time trial performance in sub-elite under 23 cyclists. PloS One, 14(6), e0218405. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0218405
15.    Gantois, P., Caputo Ferreira, M. E., Lima-Junior, D., Nakamura, F. Y., Batista, G. R., Fonseca, F. S., & Fortes, L. S. (2020). Effects of mental fatigue on passing decision-making performance in professional soccer athletes. European Journal of Sport Science, 20(4), 534–543. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2019.1656781
16.    Gattoni, C. (2019). Mental fatigue and sleep deprivation: Effects, mechanisms and countermeasures in endurance exercise performance [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Kent, Kent, United Kingdom.
17.    Ghadiri, F., Jazayeri, A., Ashayeri, H., Ghazi-Tabatabaei, M. (2007). The role of cognitive rehabilitation in reduction of executive function deficits and obsessive-compulsive symptoms in schizo-obsessive patients. Journal of Rehabilitation, 7(4), 11-24. In Persian
18.    Guillot, A., Hoyek, N., Louis, M., & Collet, C. (2012). Understanding the timing of motor imagery: Recent findings and future directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5, 3-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2011.623787
19.    Hachard, B., Noé, F., Ceyte, H., Trajin, B., & Paillard, T. (2020). Balance control is impaired by mental fatigue due to the fulfilment of a continuous cognitive task or by the watching of a documentary. Experimental Brain Research, 238(4), 861–868. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-020-05758-2
20.    Hancock, P. A., Desmond, P. A., & Matthews, G. (2017). Conceptualizing and defining fatigue. In Matthews, G., Hancock, P. A., Desmond, P. A. (Eds.), The handbook of operator fatigue (pp. 63–73). London: CRC Press.
21.    Hartmann, M. N., Hager, O. M., Tobler, P. N., & Kaiser, S. (2013). Parabolic discounting of monetary rewards by physical effort. Behavioural Processes, 100, 192–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2013.09.014
22.    Hockey, G. R. J. (1997). Compensatory control in the regulation of human performance under stress and high workload: A cognitive-energetical framework. Biological Psychology, 45(1-3), 73-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-0511(96)05223-4
23.    Holtzer, R., Shuman, M., Mahoney, J. R., Lipton, R., & Verghese, J. (2011). Cognitive fatigue defined in the context of attention networks. Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section B, Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 18(1), 108–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2010.517826
24.    Izadi, A., Tahmasebi Boroujeni, S., doosti, M. (2020). Effect of central and peripheral fatigue on throwing accuracy and velocity in handball. Sport Psychology Studies, 9(31), 177-188. In Persian https://doi.org/10.22089/spsyj.2019.7545.1810
25.    Kahneman, D. (1973). Attention and effort. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
26.    Kanfer, R. (1987). Task-specific motivation: An integrative approach to issues of measurement, mechanisms, processes, and determinants. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 5, 251-278.
27.    Klee, S. H., & Garfinkel, B. D. (1983). The computerized continuous performance task: A new measure of inattention. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 11(4), 487–495.
28.    Kool, W., McGuire, J. T., Rosen, Z. B., & Botvinick, M. M. (2010). Decision making and the avoidance of cognitive demand. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 139(4), 665–682. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020198
29.    Kosack, M. H., Staiano, W., Folino, R., Hansen, M. B., & Lønbro, S. (2020). The acute effect of mental fatigue on badminton performance in elite players. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 15(5), 632–638. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2019-0361
30.    Kunrath, C. A., Nakamura, F. Y., Roca, A., Tessitore, A., & Teoldo Da Costa, I. (2020). How does mental fatigue affect soccer performance during small-sided games? A cognitive, tactical and physical approach. Journal of Sports Sciences, 38(15), 1818–1828. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1756681
31.    Langner, R., Steinborn, M. B., Chatterjee, A., Sturm, W., & Willmes, K. (2010). Mental fatigue and temporal preparation in simple reaction-time performance. Acta Psychologica, 133(1), 64–72.
32.    Le Mansec, Y., Pageaux, B., Nordez, A., Dorel, S., & Jubeau, M. (2018). Mental fatigue alters the speed and the accuracy of the ball in table tennis. Journal of Sports Science, 36(23), 2751-2759. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2017.1418647
33.    Lee, T. D., Swinnen, S. P., & Serrien, D. J. (1994). Cognitive effort and motor learning. Quest, 46(3), 328-344.
34.    Lim, J., & Dinges, D. F. (2010). A meta-analysis of the impact of short-term sleep deprivation on cognitive variables. Psychological Bulletin, 136(3), 375–389.
35.    Liu, M., Lu, J., Gu, Y., Gao, C., & Lv, W. (2021). Research and analysis on the influence factors of visual reaction time. In H. Ayaz, & U. Asgher (Eds.), Advances in neuroergonomics and cognitive engineering. AHFE 2020. Advances in intelligent systems and computing (Vol. 1201, pp. 141-146). Champaign, IL: Springer.
36.    Lorist, M. M., Boksem, M. A. S., & Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2005). Impaired cognitive control and reduced cingulate activity during mental fatigue. Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research, 24(2), 199–205.
37.    Marcora, S. (2009). Perception of effort during exercise is independent of afferent feedback from skeletal muscles, heart, and lungs. Journal of Applied Physiology, 106(6), 2060–2062.
38.    Marcora, S. M. (2014). The effects of mental fatigue on repeated sprint ability and cognitive performance in football players. UEFA research grant pro-gramme.
39.    Martin, K., Thompson, K. G., Keegan, R., Ball, N., & Rattray, B. (2015). Mental fatigue does not affect maximal anaerobic exercise performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 115(4), 715–725.
40.    Mokari Saei, S., Hosseini, F., Ahmadi, M. (2021). Effect of practicing under high psychological pressure on the performance and learning of the basketball jump shot: A test on the practice specificity hypothesis. Sport Psychology Studies, 10(35), 37-50. In Persian https://doi.org/10.22089/spsyj.2019.7694.1834
41.    Morris, T., Spittle, M., & Watt, A. P. (2005). Imagery in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
42.    Myrden, A., & Chau, T. (2015). Effects of user mental state on EEG-BCI performance. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 9, e 308.
43.    Norman, D. A., & Bobrow, D. G. (1975). On data-limited and resource-limited processes. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 44–64.
44.    Pageaux, B., Lepers, R., Dietz, K. C., & Marcora, S. M. (2014). Response inhibition impairs subsequent self-paced endurance performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 114(5), 1095–1105.
45.    Pageaux, B., Marcora, S. M., & Lepers, R. (2013). Prolonged mental exertion does not alter neuromuscular function of the knee extensors. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 45, 2254–2264.
46.    Penna, E. M., Wanner, S. P., Campos, B. T., et al. (2018). Mental fatigue impairs physical performance in young swimmers. Pediatric Exercise Science, 30(2), 208-215.
47.    Pires, F. O., Silva-Junior, F. L., Brietzke C., et al. (2018). Mental fatigue alters cortical activation and psychological responses, impairing performance in a distance-based cycling trial. Frontiers in Physiology, 9, e227. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.00227
48.    Pomer-Escher, A., Tello, R., Castillo, J., & Bastos-Filho, J. (2014). Analysis of mental fatigue in motor imagery and emotional stimulation based on EEG. Paper presented at the XXIV Congresso Brasileiro de Engenharia Biomédica (CBEB), Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
49.    Reteig, L. C., van den Brink, R. L., Prinssen, S., Cohen, M. X., & Slagter, H. A. (2019). Sustaining attention for a prolonged period of time increases temporal variability in cortical responses. Cortex; a Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior, 117, 16–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2019.02.016
50.    Rostami-Hajiabadi, M., Rahnama, N., Khayamnashi, K., Bambaei-Chi, E., Mojtahedi, H. (2011). The study of validity and reliability of the Persian version of the movement imagery questionnaire 2. Olympic, 54, 129-139. In Persian
51.    Roberts, R., Callow, N., Hardy, L., Markland, D., & Bringer, J. (2008). Movement imagery ability: Development and assessment of a revised version of the vividness of movement imagery questionnaire. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 30, 200-221.
52.    Rozand, V., Lebon, F., Papaxanthis, C., & Lepers, R. (2015). Effect of mental fatigue on speed-accuracy trade-off. Neuroscience, 297, 219-30.
53.    Rozand, V., Lebon, F., Stapley, P. J., Papaxanthis, C., & Lepers, R. (2016). A prolonged motor imagery session alter imagined and actual movement durations: Potential implications for neurorehabilitation. Behavioural brain research, 297, 67–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2015.09.036
54.    Ruffino, C., Papaxanthis, C., & Lebon, F. (2017). Neural plasticity during motor learning with motor imagery practice: Review and perspectives. Neuroscience, 341, 61–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.11.023
55.    Smith, M. R., Coutts, A. J., Merlini, M., Deprez, D., Lenoir, M., & Marcora, S. M. (2016). Mental fatigue impairs soccer-specific physical and technical performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 48(2), 267–276. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000000762
56.    Smith, M. R., Marcora, S. M., & Coutts, A. J. (2015). Mental fatigue impairs intermittent running performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 47(8), 1682–1690.
57.    Spittle, M. (2001). Preference for imagery perspective, imagery perspective training and task performance (doctoral dissertation). Victoria University, Australia.
58.    Staiano, W., Bosio, A., Piazza, G., Romagnoli, M., & Invernizzi, P. L. (2019). Kayaking performance is altered in mentally fatigued young elite athletes. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 59(7), 1253–1262. https://doi.org/10.23736/s0022-4707.18.09051-5
59.    Talukdar, U., Hazarika, S. M., & Gan, J. Q. (2020). Adaptive feature extraction in EEG-based motor imagery BCI: tracking mental fatigue. Journal of Neural Engineering, 17(1), e 016020. https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-2552/ab53f1
60.    Tanaka, M., Ishii, A., & Watanabe, Y. (2015). Effects of mental fatigue on brain activity and cognitive performance: A magnetoencephalography study. Anatomy and Physiology: Current Research, 5, s4. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0940.S4-002
61.    Tassignon, B., Verschueren, J., De Pauw, K., Roelands, B., Van Cutsem, J., Verhagen, E., & Meeusen, R. (2020). Mental fatigue impairs clinician‐friendly balance test performance and brain activity. Translational Sports Medicine. 3(6), 616-625. https://doi.org/10.1002/tsm2.177
62.    Trojan, S., & Pokorný, J. (1999). Theoretical aspects of neuroplasticity. Physiological research, 48(2), 87–97.
63.    Van der Linden, D., & Eling, P. (2006). Mental fatigue disturbs local processing more than global processing. Psychological Research, 70(5), 395–402.
64.    Van der Linden, D., Frese, M., & Meijman, T. F. (2003a). Mental fatigue and the control of cognitive processes: Effects on perseveration and planning. Acta Psychologica, 113(1), 45–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0001-6918(02)00150-6
65.    Van der Linden, D., Frese, M., & Sonnentag, S. (2003b). The impact of mental fatigue on exploration in a complex computer task: Rigidity and loss of systematic strategies. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 45, 483–494. https://doi.org/10.1518/hfes.45.3.483.27256
66.    Veness, D., Patterson, S. D., Jeffries, O., & Waldron, M. (2017). The effects of mental fatigue on cricket-relevant performance among elite players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(24), 2461-2467. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1273540
67.    Warm, J. S., Parasuraman, R., & Matthews, G. (2008). Vigilance requires hard mental work and is stressful. Human Factors, 50(3), 433–441. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872008x312152
68.    Westbrook, A., & Braver, T. S. (2015). Cognitive effort: A neuroeconomic approach. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience, 15(2), 395–415. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-015-0334-y