Sport Psychology Studies

Sport Psychology Studies

The Effects of PETTLEP Imagery Training on Back Tuck Performance in Competitive Swimmers: The Mediating Role of Sport Confidence

Document Type : Original research

Authors
Mahdi Fahimi 1
Zahra Asadi 2
1 Assistant Professor, Department of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Letters and Humanities, University of Qom, Qom, Iran.
2 Department of Sport Psychology, Faculty of Humanities, Shahab Danesh University, Qom, Iran.
10.22089/spsyj.2025.18265.2587
Abstract
Recent advancements in sports psychology emphasize the role of mental imagery in enhancing athletic performance, particularly for complex motor skills. The PETTLEP model (Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion, Perspective) provides a structured approach to motor imagery, promoting functional equivalence between imagined and actual performance. This study investigated the effects of PETTLEP-based imagery on the backward somersault in swimming while exploring self-efficacy as a potential mediator.



A randomized controlled trial was conducted with 45 national-level male swimmers (18–25 years). Participants were assigned to either a PETTLEP imagery group (18 sessions over six weeks) or a control group. Biomechanical performance (rotation speed, entry angle precision, timing consistency) was assessed, while psychological factors (self-confidence, anxiety) were measured via standardized questionnaires.



Results showed significant improvements in the PETTLEP group: rotation speed increased by 12.7%, entry angle precision improved by 9.3°, and timing consistency (coefficient of variation) decreased from 8.2% to 4.7%. Psychological assessments revealed an 18.6-point increase in self-confidence and a 22.4% reduction in competitive anxiety. Path analysis indicated dual mechanisms: a direct effect of imagery on performance (β = 0.42) and an indirect effect mediated by self-efficacy (β = 0.31). Neurocognitive data supported these findings, showing enhanced sensorimotor activation and cortical connectivity.



The study confirms PETTLEP imagery as an effective tool for improving both physical and psychological aspects of complex aquatic skills. Practical applications include integrating structured imagery sessions into training, using video feedback, and monitoring psychological outcomes. Future research should explore long-term retention, individualized protocols, and broader applications in sports training.
Keywords
motor imagery
PETTLEP model
swimming performance
self-confidence
skill acquisition

Subjects

1.       Bach, P., Frank, C., & Kunde, W. (2024). Why motor imagery is not really motoric: towards a re-conceptualization in terms of effect-based action control. Psychological research, 88(6), 1790–1804. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-022-01773-w
2.       Behrendt, F., Zumbrunnen, V., Brem, L., Suica, Z., Gäumann, S., Ziller, C., Gerth, U., & Schuster-Amft, C. (2021). Effect of Motor Imagery Training on Motor Learning in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(18), 9467. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189467
3.       Budnik-Przybylska, D., Huzarska, I., & Karasiewicz, K. (2022). Does Imagery Ability Matter for the Relationship Between Temperament and Self-Confidence in Team and Individual Sport Disciplines?. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 893457. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.893457
4.       Budnik-Przybylska, D., Kastrau, A., Jasik, P., Kaźmierczak, M., Doliński, Ł., Syty, P., Łabuda, M., Przybylski, J., di Fronso, S., & Bertollo, M. (2021). Neural Oscillation During Mental Imagery in Sport: An Olympic Sailor Case Study. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 15, 669422. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.669422
5.       Budnik-Przybylska, D., Syty, P., Kaźmierczak, M., Przybylski, J., Doliński, Ł., Łabuda, M., Jasik, P., Kastrau, A., di Fronso, S., & Bertollo, M. (2024). Psychophysiological strategies for enhancing performance through imagery-skin conductance level analysis in guided vs. self-produced imagery. Scientific reports, 14(1), 5197. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-55743-w
6.       Cederström, N., Granér, S., Nilsson, G., Dahan, R., & Ageberg, E. (2021). Motor Imagery to Facilitate Sensorimotor Re-Learning (MOTIFS) after traumatic knee injury: study protocol for an adaptive randomized controlled trial. Trials, 22(1), 729. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-021-05713-8
7.       Dhouibi, M. A., Miladi, I., Racil, G., Hammoudi, S., & Coquart, J. (2021). The Effects of Sporting and Physical Practice on Visual and Kinesthetic Motor Imagery Vividness: A Comparative Study Between Athletic, Physically Active, and Exempted Adolescents. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 776833. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.776833
8.       Fauzan, H. A., Komarudin, K., Subarjah, H., Hadiyani, W., Dolifah, D., (2025) Effects of PETTLEP Imagery Training on Competitive Anxiety and Self-Confidence in Badminton Athletes. Ann Appl Sport Sci 2025; 13 (2) https://doi.org/10.61186/aassjournal.1569 URL: https://aassjournal.com/article-1-1569-en.pdf
9.       Foroutan Mahini, T., & Aghdasi, M. (2025). Examining the Impact of Positive Psychology and Mental Imagery Techniques on the Mental Health of Injured Athletes. Functional Research in Sport Psychology, 2(2), 19-33. https://doi.org/10.22091/frs.2025.12786.1051
10.    Frank C and Schack T (2017) The Representation of Motor (Inter)action, States of Action, and Learning: Three Perspectives on Motor Learning by Way of Imagery and Execution. Front. Psychol. 8:678. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00678
11.    Frank, C., Kraeutner, S.N., Rieger, M. et al. Learning motor actions via imagery—perceptual or motor learning?. Psychological Research 88, 1820–1832 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-022-01787-4
12.    Ghasemnezhad,M. , Aghdaei,M. and Farsi,A. (2025). Effect of Physical and Imagery Training under Mental Fatigue Condition on Cognitive Effort among Basketball Novices. (e2722). Sport Psychology Studies, 14(51), e2722 https://doi.org/10.22089/spsyj.2021.11198.2223
13.    Janjigian, K. (2024). Picture perfect: the science behind mental imagery for peak performance & best practices for mental imagery protocols in sport. Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity, 19(s1), 20230027. https://doi.org/10.1515/jirspa-2023-0027
14.    Kouroshfard, K., & Fazeli, D. (2025). Comparison of the Effect of Block-Us and Tetris Games on Mental Rotation and Motor Imagery Abilities in Adolescence Boys. Functional Research in Sport Psychology, 2(1), 34-46. https://doi.org/10.22091/frs.2025.12452.1041
15.    Li, J., Leng, Z., Tang, K., Na, M., Li, Y., & Shah Alam, S. (2024). Multidimensional impact of sport types on the psychological well-being of student athletes: A multivariate investigation. Heliyon, 10(11), e32331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32331
16.    Lin, C. H., Lu, F. J. H., Gill, D. L., Huang, K. S., Wu, S. C., & Chiu, Y. H. (2022). Combinations of action observation and motor imagery on golf putting's performance. PeerJ, 10, e13432. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.13432
17.    Lin, H. H., Lin, T. Y., Ling, Y., & Lo, C. C. (2021). Influence of Imagery Training on Adjusting the Pressure of Fin Swimmers, Improving Sports Performance and Stabilizing Psychological Quality. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(22), 11767. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182211767
18.    Liu, Y., Zhao, S., Zhang, X., Zhang, X., Liang, T., & Ning, Z. (2025). The Effects of Imagery Practice on Athletes' Performance: A Multilevel Meta-Analysis with Systematic Review. Behavioral sciences (Basel, Switzerland), 15(5), 685. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050685
19.    López-Rodríguez, L., González Carballido, L.G., Montoya-Romero, C.A., Suárez-Rodríguez, M.C., González-Rabeiro, M., Charlot-Cardoza, O., Yañez-Rivera, A., Feria-Madueño, A. (2025). Self-Efficacy in High-Performance Sports: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, Psychology in Russia: State of the Art, 18(1), 116–143. https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2025.0107
20.    Lu, C., & Xu, J. (2023). Influences of Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion, Perspective (PETTLEP) Intervention on Psychological Resilience, Psychological Skills, Anxiety and Depression of Athletes. Iranian journal of public health, 52(1), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.18502/ijph.v52i1.11669
21.    Martín-Rodríguez, A., Gostian-Ropotin, L. A., Beltrán-Velasco, A. I., Belando-Pedreño, N., Simón, J. A., López-Mora, C., Navarro-Jiménez, E., Tornero-Aguilera, J. F., & Clemente-Suárez, V. J. (2024). Sporting Mind: The Interplay of Physical Activity and Psychological Health. Sports (Basel, Switzerland), 12(1), 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12010037
22.    McNeil, D. G., Lindsay, R. S., Worn, R., Spittle, M., & Gabbett, T. J. (2025). Could Motor Imagery Training Provide a Novel Load Management Solution for Athletes? Recommendations for Sport Medicine and Performance Practitioners. Sports health, 17(1), 156–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/19417381241297161
23.    Milley, K. R., & Ouellette, G. P. (2021). Putting Attention on the Spot in Coaching: Shifting to an External Focus of Attention with Imagery Techniques to Improve Basketball Free-Throw Shooting Performance. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 645676. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.645676
24.    Mohd Nasir, M. F., Shaari, J. S., Mohd Radyi, S. A., & Shalifullizam, N. I. F. C. (2024). PETTLEP Imagery Components and Physical Training Activities Consider as Practice in Mind (PIM): A Combination of Comprehensive Physical Training Program for Football Players. International Journal of Education, Psychology and Counseling, 9 (53),01-10. https://doi.org/10.35631/ijepc.953001
25.    Mustile, M., Kourtis, D., Edwards, M. G., Donaldson, D. I., & Ietswaart, M. (2024). Neural correlates of motor imagery and execution in real-world dynamic behavior: evidence for similarities and differences. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 18, 1412307. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1412307
26.    Namli, S., Özdemir, K., Sen, I., & Bedir, D. (2025). Virtual reality-supported video modeling for enhancing motor skill acquisition in swimming. BMC sports science, medicine & rehabilitation, 17(1), 182. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-025-01241-z
27.    Ron Baum, A., Franklin, E., Leitner, Y., & Abraham, A. (2024). Mental imagery for addressing mechanisms underlying motor impairments in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Frontiers in neurology, 15, 1501871. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2024.1501871
28.    Selian, S., Humaid, H., Sukur, A., Dlis, F., Simatupang, N., Rusdi, Dermawan, D. F., & Setiawan, E. (2023). Effects of imagery training to improve the quality of athletes’ swimming skills: a mixed research method. Health, Sport, Rehabilitation, 9(4), 20–32. https://doi.org/10.58962/HSR.2023.9.4.20-32
29.    shaban,E. , SHAHBAZI,M. and Tahmasebi Boroujeni,S. (2025). The Effect of Mental Imagery and Physical Practice on Tracking Task inChildren with Developmental Coordination Disorder. (e2520). Sport Psychology Studies, 14(51), e2520 https://doi.org/10.22089/spsyj.2021.10627.2187
30.    Tinaz, S., Kamel, S., Aravala, S. S., Elfil, M., Bayoumi, A., Patel, A., Scheinost, D., Sinha, R., & Hampson, M. (2022). Neurofeedback-guided kinesthetic motor imagery training in Parkinson's disease: Randomized trial. NeuroImage. Clinical, 34, 102980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2022.102980
31.    Volgemute, K., Vazne, Z., & Malinauskas, R. (2025). The benefits of guided imagery on athletic performance: a mixed-methods approach. Frontiers in psychology, 16, 1500194. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1500194
32.    Weiß, M., Büttner, M., & Richlan, F. (2024). The Role of Sport Psychology in Injury Prevention and Rehabilitation in Junior Athletes. Behavioral sciences (Basel, Switzerland), 14(3), 254. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14030254
33.    Wirbiezcas, Michelle, "The Mediation of Affect on Imagery Use and Self-Efficacy in. Collegiate Athletes" (2019). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 1888.https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/etd/1888
34.    Zhang, J. J. Q., Fong, K. N. K., Welage, N., & Liu, K. P. Y. (2018). The Activation of the Mirror Neuron System during Action Observation and Action Execution with Mirror Visual Feedback in Stroke: A Systematic Review. Neural plasticity, 2018, 2321045. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2321045

  • Receive Date 13 July 2025
  • Revise Date 29 August 2025
  • Accept Date 31 August 2025