روان­سنجی نسخة فارسی پرسش­نامۀ کارکردهای یادگیری مشاهده­ای در ورزشکاران

Extended Abstract
Background and Purpose
Observational learning, rooted in social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), is a fundamental mechanism for acquiring complex motor skills. While extensive research has focused on modeling for skill acquisition (Robertson et al., 2018), the broader functions of observational learning—such as acquiring strategies and tactics (Ste-Marie et al., 2020) and developing psychological skills (Cumming et al., 2005)—remain comparatively underexplored. To address this, Cumming et al. (2005) developed the 17-item Functions of Observational Learning Questionnaire (FOLQ), which assesses three distinct functions: skill, strategy, and performance.
The validity of research findings is contingent upon the use of psychometrically sound instruments. Therefore, establishing the reliability and validity of a questionnaire is a fundamental step in research methodology (Kukea Shultz & Englert, 2021). This is particularly critical in cross-cultural applications, where cultural differences can influence how respondents interpret items. To date, the psychometric properties of the FOLQ have not been examined in a Persian-speaking context. Consequently, this study aimed to translate, culturally adapt, and evaluate the reliability and validity of the Persian version of the FOLQ to facilitate its use among athletes.
Materials and Methods
A total of 387 athletes (165 novices, 222 elites), aged 14 to 40 years, participated in the study. The sample consisted of 214 females and 173 males, representing 38 different sports disciplines. Participants were drawn from both individual (n = 184) and team sports (n = 202). Elite athletes were specifically recruited from national team selection camps in Tehran.
The original English version of the FOLQ was translated into Persian following a standard forward-backward translation procedure to ensure conceptual equivalence. The questionnaire comprises 17 items across three subscales: performance, skill, and strategy. An initial item analysis was conducted to examine discrimination indices and item-total correlations.
To assess psychometric properties, internal consistency was evaluated using Cronbach's alpha. Test-retest reliability was examined with a subset of 61 participants who completed the questionnaire twice at a one-week interval, and temporal stability was determined using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed using structural equation modeling (SEM) to validate the hypothesized three-factor structure. All analyses were conducted using SPSS (version 26) and AMOS (version 18).
 
Findings 
 
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to validate the hypothesized three-factor, 17-item structure of the FOLQ. The model demonstrated a good fit to the data, as indicated by the following fit indices: χ² = 274.02, χ²/df = 5.05, CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.91, GFI = 0.92, and RMSEA = 0.05.
All items loaded significantly onto their respective latent factors, with standardized factor loadings ranging from 0.55 to 0.74, confirming that each item was a meaningful indicator of its construct. The strongest loading items for each factor were Item 14 (0.74) for the Performance factor, Item 3 (0.67) for the Skill factor, and Item 16 (0.65) for the Strategy factor. The factors were positively correlated, with the strongest relationship observed between the Strategy and Skill factors (r = 0.88), followed by Strategy and Performance (r = 0.67), and Skill and Performance (r = 0.49). These correlations support the distinctiveness yet relatedness of the three constructs, and no model modifications were required.
The internal consistency of the questionnaire was excellent. The overall Cronbach's alpha was 0.88, and the subscale alphas were 0.82 (Performance), 0.80 (Skill), and 0.72 (Strategy). Test-retest reliability over a one-week interval, accessed via the intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC), was also satisfactory, with values of 0.76 for Performance, 0.73 for Skill, and 0.72 for Strategy.
The composition of the three validated factors is as follows:
Skill Factor (6 items): Pertains to skill acquisition and learning motor skills (Items 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 15).
Strategy Factor (5 items): Reflects learning game plans, strategies, and tactics (Items 1, 4, 5, 9, 16).
Performance Factor (6 items): Captures psychological improvements, including focus, motivation, and anxiety regulation (Items 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17).
A detailed analysis of how observational learning functions are utilized by athletes, broken down by skill level, gender, and sport type, is presented in Table 1. Collectively, these results provide robust evidence for the validity and reliability of the Persian FOLQ, confirming its applicability for measuring the multidimensional nature of observational learning among Iranian athletes.
 Conclusion
This study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Persian version of the Functions of Observational Learning Questionnaire (FOLQ) among athletes. The 17 items of the FOLQ were grouped into three factors: performance, skill, and strategy. Descriptive analyses revealed that Iranian athletes tend to utilize skill functions more frequently than strategy and performance functions (Tahmasbi et al. 2013). Integrating observational learning models that target performance (psychological) functions (e.g., optimal arousal regulation, maintaining focus, desirable mental states, psychological response regulation, and mental skill acquisition) alongside cognitive functions (e.g., acquiring skill execution-specific information, mastering sports skills, and learning tactics and game strategies) can significantly enhance athletic performance, particularly during training. The Persian version of the FOLQ provides a tool for coaches and athletes to identify strengths and weaknesses in their use of observational learning use. By highlighting the extent and underlying reasons for athletes' reliance on observational learning, this instrument facilitates the design of effective training programs. Greater emphasis on developing psychological and strategic aspects of observational learning is recommended to maximize athletic potential and performance outcomes.
Ethical Considerations 
This study was carried out with basic objectives in accordance with research guidelines and compliance with all ethical principles.
Authors’ Contributions
AB and FH were responsible for design and conceptualization of the study. Data collection and data Analysis was carried out by EH. The manuscript was primarily written by EH. Review and editing were performed by AB and FH. Project management was overseen by AB.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest regarding this article.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to all the athletes who participated in this study and completed the scale with honesty and enthusiasm.