Document Type : Original research study
Authors
1 Professor of Clinical psychology, University of Tehran
2 M.Sc., of General Psychology, University of Semnan
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to predict drive for muscularity from attitude for muscularity, exercise dependence, and attitude toward performance-enhancing drug use among males athlete. In this research, the statistical population consisted of all Tehran athletes in the year 2016, which were selected 240 athletes as samples by access sampling method. The data were collected through questionnaires of drive for muscularity (DFM), drive for muscularity attitudes questionnaire (DMAQ), exercise dependence scale (EDS) and performance enhancement attitude scale (PEAS). Data analysis showed that the three variables of attitude for muscularity, exercise dependence and attitude toward performance-enhancing druguse, could predict the drive for muscularity among athletes. The results of this study suggest that in order to prevent and reduce the negative effects of drive for muscularity among athletes and also increase the awareness of sports caretakers, identifying the three predictive factors of it, namely, attitude muscularity, exercise dependence and attitude toward performance-enhancing druguse are recommended.
Keywords
- Drive for Muscularity
- Attitude for Muscularity
- Exercise Dependence
- Attitude toward Performance-Enhancing Drug Use
- Athletes
Main Subjects
1. Abdoli, B., Farsi, A. R., & Kaviyani, A. (2014). Psychometric properties of Persian Version of Exercise Dependence Questionnaire in Athletes. Journal of Sport Psychology Studies, 15, 79-92. (In Persian).
2. Acevedo, P., Jorge, J. C., Cruz-Sánchez, A., Amy, E., & Barreto-Estrada, J. L. (2011). A ten-year assessment of anabolic steroid misuse among competitive athletes in Puerto Rico. The West Indian Medical Journal, 60(5), 531.
3. Allegre, B., Therme, P., & Griffiths, M. D. (2007). Individual factors and the context of physical activity in exercise dependence: A prospective study of ‘ultra-marathoners’. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 5, 43–233.
4. Amirsasanian, R., Dabaghkheslat, S., & Dehghanzadedanalo, M. (2012). Relationship between eating and exercising in athletic women in endurance, weight and aesthetic disciplines. (Unpublished master dissertation). University of Tabriz. (In Persien).
5. Blaydon, M. J., & Lindner, K. J. (2002). Eating disorders and exercise dependence is triathletes. Eating Disorders, 10(1), 49–60.
6. Cafri, G., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Measuring male body image: Areview of current methodology. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 5, 18–29.
7. Cafri, G., & Thompson, J. K. (2007). Measurement of the muscular ideal. In J. K. Thompson & G. Cafri (Eds.), The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives. (Pp: 107–20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
8. Cafri, G., Thompson, J. K., Ricciardelli, L., McCabe, M., Smolak, L., & Yesalis, C. (2005). Pursuit of the muscular ideal: Physical and psychological consequences and putative risk factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 39-215.
9. Edwards, C., & Tod, D. (2013). Predicting drive for muscularity behavioural engagement from body image attitudes and emotions. Body Image, 10(1), 8-135.
10. Edwards, C., Tod, D., Molnar, G., & Markland, D. (2016). Predicting muscularity-related behavior, emotions, and cognitions in men: The role of psychological need thwarting, drive for muscularity, and mesomorphic internalization. Body Image, 18, 12-108
11. Galli, N., & Reel, J. J. (2009). Adonis or Hephaestus? Exploring body image inmale athletes. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10, 95-108.
12. Galli, N., Petrie, T., Reel, J. J., Greenleaf, C., & Carter, J. E. (2015). Psychosocial predictors of drive for muscularity in male collegiate athletes. Body Image, 14, 6-62.
13. Hale, B. D., Roth, A. D., DeLong, R. E., & Briggs, M. S. (2010). Exercise dependence and the drive for muscularity in male bodybuilders, power lifters, and fitness lifters. Body Image, 7(3), 9-234.
14. Hargreaves, D. A., & Tiggemann, M. (2004). Idealized media images and adolescent body image: Comparing boys and girls. Body Image, 1, 61–351.
15. Hashim, H. A., Zulkifli, E. Z., & Yusof, H. A. (2010). Factorial validation of Malaysian adapted Brunel Mood Scale in an adolescent sample. Asian Journal of Sports Medicine, 1(4), 185. (In Persian).
16. Hatoum, I. J., & Belle, D. (2004). Mags and abs: Media consumption and bodily concerns in men. Sex Roles, 51, 397–407.
17. Hausenblas, H. A., & Downs, D. S. (2002a). How much is too much? The development and validation of the exercise dependence scale. Psychology and Health, 17(4), 387-404.
18. Hausenblas, H. A., & Symons Downs, D. (2002b). Relationship among sex, imagery, and exercise dependence symptoms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16(2), 72–169.
19. Hildebrandt, T., Langenbucher, J. W., Carr, S. J., & Sanjuan, P. (2007). Modeling population heterogeneity in appearance-and performance-enhancing drug (APED) use: Applications of mixture modeling in 400 regular APED users. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116(4), 717.
20. Kanayama, G., Pope, H. G., Cohane, G., & Hudson, J. I. (2003). Risk factors for anabolic-androgenic steroid use among weightlifters: A case–control study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 71(1), 77-86.
21. Lantz, C. D., Rhea, D., & Mayhew, J. (2001). The drive for size: A psychobehavioral model of muscle dysmorphia. International Sports Journal, 5(1), 71-86.
22. Lichtenstein, M. B., Larsen, K. S., Christiansen, E., Støving, R. K., & Bredahl, T. V. G. (2014). Exercise addiction in team sport and individual sport: Prevalences and validation of the exercise addiction inventory. Addiction Research and Theory, 5, 7-431.
23. Litt, D., & Dodge, T. (2008). A longitudinal investigation of the Drive for Muscularity Scale: Predicting use of performance enhancing substances and weightlifting among males. Body Image, 5(4), 51-346.
24. Magee, C. A., Buchanan, I., & Barrie, L. (2016). Profiles of exercise dependence symptoms in Ironman participants. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 24, 48-55.
25. Manouchehri, J., & Tojari, F. (2013). Development and validation of instruments to measure doping attitudes and doping beliefs. European Journal of Experimental Biology, 3(2), 6-56. (In Persian).
26. Manouchehri, J., Tojari, F., Ashraf Ganjoe, F. (2012). Relationships between sport orientation, doping attitude and behavior in elite martial arts athletes. (Unpublished master dissertation). Islamic Azad University Central Tehran Branch. (In Persian).
27. McCreary, D. R. (2007). The Drive for Muscularity Scale: Description, psychometrics and research findings. In J. K. Thompson & G. Cafri (Eds.), The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives (Pp. 87–106). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
28. McCreary, D. R. (2011). Body image and muscularity. In T. F. Cash & L. Smolak (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention (Pp. 198-205). (2ed ed). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
29. McCreary, D. R. (2012). Muscularity and body image. In T. F. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance (Pp. 7-561). San Diego, CA: Academic Press
30. McCreary, D. R., & Sasse, D. K. (2002). Gender differences in high school students' dieting behavior and their correlates. International Journal of Men's Health, 1(2), 195.
31. Menczel, Z., Griffiths, M. D., Vingender, I., Eisinger, A., Farkas, J., Magi, A., & Demetrovics, Z. (2016). Exercise dependence in amateur competitors and non-competitor recreational exercisers. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1-8.
32. Molodi, R., Nonahal, S., & Dadkhah, A. (2013). The psychometric properties of the Persian Version of Drive for Musclarity Scale in male athletes in Gorgan city. Journal of Method and Psychological Model, 2(10), 15-26. (In Persian).
33. Morrison, T. G., & Harriman, R. L. (2005). Additional evidence for the psychometric soundness of the Drive for Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (DMAQ). The Journal of Social Psychology, 145(5), 20-618.
34. Morrison, T. G., Morrison, M. A., & McCann, L. (2006). Striving for bodily perfection? An overview of the drive for muscularity. In M. V. Kindes (Ed.), Body image: New research (Pp. 1-34). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science.
35. Morrison, T. G., Morrison, M. A., Hopkins, C., & Rowan, E. T. (2004). Muscle mania: Development of a new scale examining the Drive for Muscularity in Canadian men. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 5, 9-30.
36. Morry, M. M., & Staska, S. L. (2001). Magazine exposure: Internalization, self-objectification, eating attitudes, and body satisfaction in male and female university students. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/ Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement, 33(4), 269.
37. Nakhaee, M. R., Pakravan, F., & Nakhaee, N. (2013). Prevalence of use of anabolic steroids by bodybuilders using three methods in a city of Iran. Addiction & Health, 5(3-4), 77. (In Persian).
38. Olivardia, R., Pope, H. G., Borowiecki, J. J., & Cohane, G. H. (2004). Biceps and body image: The relationship between muscularity and self-esteem, depression, and eating disorder symptoms. Psychogy of Men and Masculinity, 5, 20-112.
39. Parent, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2011). His biceps become him: A test of objectification theory's application to drive for muscularity and propensity for steroid use in college men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(2), 246.
40. Parkinson, A. B., & Evans, N. A. (2006). Anabolic androgenic steroids: A survey of 500 users. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 38(4), 51-614.
41. Petróczi, A. (2002). Exploring the doping dilemma in elite sport: Can athletes’ attitudes be responsible for doping. (Published doctoral dissertation). University of Northern Colorado, USA.
42. Pope Jr, H. G., Gruber, A. J., Mangweth, B., Bureau, B., Decol, C., Jouvent, R., & Hudson, J. I. (2000). Body image perception among men in three countries. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(8), 1297-1301.
43. Pritchard, M., & Nielsen, A. (2014). What predicts Drive for Muscularity in collegiate athletes v. non-athletes?. Athletic Insight, 6(1), 1-15.
44. Rohman, L. (2009). The relationship between anabolic androgenic steroids and muscle dysmorphia: A review. Eating Disorders, 17(3), 99-187.
45. Rossi, L., & Tirapegui, J. (2016). Exercise dependence and its relationship with supplementation at gyms in Brazil. Nutrición Hospitalaria, 33(2).
46. Shahhoseini, M., Gharayagh Zandi, H., & Hasani Sangani, M. (2016). Comparison of public health and profile of mood states body building athletes with and without the use of anabolic steroids. Jornal of Development and Motor Learning of Tehran University, 8, 30-51. (In Persian).
47. Shahhosseni, M., Afshari, A. M., & Noury Ghasemabadi. (In press). Psychometric properties of the Drive for Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire among Iranian men athletes. Applied Fundamenals of Menal Health. (In Persian).
48. Strelan, P., Mehaffey, S. J., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). Self-objectification and esteem in young women: The mediating role of exercise. Sex Roles, 48, 89-95
49. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Principal components and factor analysis. Using multivariate statistics, 4, 582-633.
50. Tod, D., & Edwards, C. (2015). A meta-analysis of the drive for muscularity's relationships with exercise behaviour, disordered eating, supplement consumption, and exercise dependence. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 8(1), 185-203.
51. Tod, D., Morrison, T. G., & Edwards, C. (2012). Evaluating validity and test-retest reliability in Four Drive for Muscularity Questionnaires. Body Image, 9, 425-475.
52. Walker, D. C., Anderson, D. A., & Hildebrandt, T. (2009). Body checking behaviors in men. Body Image, 6(3), 70-164.
53. Yager, Z., & O’Dea, J. A. (2014). Relationships between body image, nutritional supplement use, and attitudes towards doping in sport among adolescent boys: Implications for prevention programs. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 11(1), 13
54. Zelli, A., Lucidi, F., & Mallia, L. (2010). The relationships among adolescents’ drive for muscularity, drive for thinness, doping attitudes, and doping intentions. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 4(1), 39-52.
2. Acevedo, P., Jorge, J. C., Cruz-Sánchez, A., Amy, E., & Barreto-Estrada, J. L. (2011). A ten-year assessment of anabolic steroid misuse among competitive athletes in Puerto Rico. The West Indian Medical Journal, 60(5), 531.
3. Allegre, B., Therme, P., & Griffiths, M. D. (2007). Individual factors and the context of physical activity in exercise dependence: A prospective study of ‘ultra-marathoners’. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 5, 43–233.
4. Amirsasanian, R., Dabaghkheslat, S., & Dehghanzadedanalo, M. (2012). Relationship between eating and exercising in athletic women in endurance, weight and aesthetic disciplines. (Unpublished master dissertation). University of Tabriz. (In Persien).
5. Blaydon, M. J., & Lindner, K. J. (2002). Eating disorders and exercise dependence is triathletes. Eating Disorders, 10(1), 49–60.
6. Cafri, G., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Measuring male body image: Areview of current methodology. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 5, 18–29.
7. Cafri, G., & Thompson, J. K. (2007). Measurement of the muscular ideal. In J. K. Thompson & G. Cafri (Eds.), The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives. (Pp: 107–20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
8. Cafri, G., Thompson, J. K., Ricciardelli, L., McCabe, M., Smolak, L., & Yesalis, C. (2005). Pursuit of the muscular ideal: Physical and psychological consequences and putative risk factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 39-215.
9. Edwards, C., & Tod, D. (2013). Predicting drive for muscularity behavioural engagement from body image attitudes and emotions. Body Image, 10(1), 8-135.
10. Edwards, C., Tod, D., Molnar, G., & Markland, D. (2016). Predicting muscularity-related behavior, emotions, and cognitions in men: The role of psychological need thwarting, drive for muscularity, and mesomorphic internalization. Body Image, 18, 12-108
11. Galli, N., & Reel, J. J. (2009). Adonis or Hephaestus? Exploring body image inmale athletes. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10, 95-108.
12. Galli, N., Petrie, T., Reel, J. J., Greenleaf, C., & Carter, J. E. (2015). Psychosocial predictors of drive for muscularity in male collegiate athletes. Body Image, 14, 6-62.
13. Hale, B. D., Roth, A. D., DeLong, R. E., & Briggs, M. S. (2010). Exercise dependence and the drive for muscularity in male bodybuilders, power lifters, and fitness lifters. Body Image, 7(3), 9-234.
14. Hargreaves, D. A., & Tiggemann, M. (2004). Idealized media images and adolescent body image: Comparing boys and girls. Body Image, 1, 61–351.
15. Hashim, H. A., Zulkifli, E. Z., & Yusof, H. A. (2010). Factorial validation of Malaysian adapted Brunel Mood Scale in an adolescent sample. Asian Journal of Sports Medicine, 1(4), 185. (In Persian).
16. Hatoum, I. J., & Belle, D. (2004). Mags and abs: Media consumption and bodily concerns in men. Sex Roles, 51, 397–407.
17. Hausenblas, H. A., & Downs, D. S. (2002a). How much is too much? The development and validation of the exercise dependence scale. Psychology and Health, 17(4), 387-404.
18. Hausenblas, H. A., & Symons Downs, D. (2002b). Relationship among sex, imagery, and exercise dependence symptoms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16(2), 72–169.
19. Hildebrandt, T., Langenbucher, J. W., Carr, S. J., & Sanjuan, P. (2007). Modeling population heterogeneity in appearance-and performance-enhancing drug (APED) use: Applications of mixture modeling in 400 regular APED users. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116(4), 717.
20. Kanayama, G., Pope, H. G., Cohane, G., & Hudson, J. I. (2003). Risk factors for anabolic-androgenic steroid use among weightlifters: A case–control study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 71(1), 77-86.
21. Lantz, C. D., Rhea, D., & Mayhew, J. (2001). The drive for size: A psychobehavioral model of muscle dysmorphia. International Sports Journal, 5(1), 71-86.
22. Lichtenstein, M. B., Larsen, K. S., Christiansen, E., Støving, R. K., & Bredahl, T. V. G. (2014). Exercise addiction in team sport and individual sport: Prevalences and validation of the exercise addiction inventory. Addiction Research and Theory, 5, 7-431.
23. Litt, D., & Dodge, T. (2008). A longitudinal investigation of the Drive for Muscularity Scale: Predicting use of performance enhancing substances and weightlifting among males. Body Image, 5(4), 51-346.
24. Magee, C. A., Buchanan, I., & Barrie, L. (2016). Profiles of exercise dependence symptoms in Ironman participants. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 24, 48-55.
25. Manouchehri, J., & Tojari, F. (2013). Development and validation of instruments to measure doping attitudes and doping beliefs. European Journal of Experimental Biology, 3(2), 6-56. (In Persian).
26. Manouchehri, J., Tojari, F., Ashraf Ganjoe, F. (2012). Relationships between sport orientation, doping attitude and behavior in elite martial arts athletes. (Unpublished master dissertation). Islamic Azad University Central Tehran Branch. (In Persian).
27. McCreary, D. R. (2007). The Drive for Muscularity Scale: Description, psychometrics and research findings. In J. K. Thompson & G. Cafri (Eds.), The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives (Pp. 87–106). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
28. McCreary, D. R. (2011). Body image and muscularity. In T. F. Cash & L. Smolak (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention (Pp. 198-205). (2ed ed). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
29. McCreary, D. R. (2012). Muscularity and body image. In T. F. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance (Pp. 7-561). San Diego, CA: Academic Press
30. McCreary, D. R., & Sasse, D. K. (2002). Gender differences in high school students' dieting behavior and their correlates. International Journal of Men's Health, 1(2), 195.
31. Menczel, Z., Griffiths, M. D., Vingender, I., Eisinger, A., Farkas, J., Magi, A., & Demetrovics, Z. (2016). Exercise dependence in amateur competitors and non-competitor recreational exercisers. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1-8.
32. Molodi, R., Nonahal, S., & Dadkhah, A. (2013). The psychometric properties of the Persian Version of Drive for Musclarity Scale in male athletes in Gorgan city. Journal of Method and Psychological Model, 2(10), 15-26. (In Persian).
33. Morrison, T. G., & Harriman, R. L. (2005). Additional evidence for the psychometric soundness of the Drive for Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (DMAQ). The Journal of Social Psychology, 145(5), 20-618.
34. Morrison, T. G., Morrison, M. A., & McCann, L. (2006). Striving for bodily perfection? An overview of the drive for muscularity. In M. V. Kindes (Ed.), Body image: New research (Pp. 1-34). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science.
35. Morrison, T. G., Morrison, M. A., Hopkins, C., & Rowan, E. T. (2004). Muscle mania: Development of a new scale examining the Drive for Muscularity in Canadian men. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 5, 9-30.
36. Morry, M. M., & Staska, S. L. (2001). Magazine exposure: Internalization, self-objectification, eating attitudes, and body satisfaction in male and female university students. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/ Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement, 33(4), 269.
37. Nakhaee, M. R., Pakravan, F., & Nakhaee, N. (2013). Prevalence of use of anabolic steroids by bodybuilders using three methods in a city of Iran. Addiction & Health, 5(3-4), 77. (In Persian).
38. Olivardia, R., Pope, H. G., Borowiecki, J. J., & Cohane, G. H. (2004). Biceps and body image: The relationship between muscularity and self-esteem, depression, and eating disorder symptoms. Psychogy of Men and Masculinity, 5, 20-112.
39. Parent, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2011). His biceps become him: A test of objectification theory's application to drive for muscularity and propensity for steroid use in college men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(2), 246.
40. Parkinson, A. B., & Evans, N. A. (2006). Anabolic androgenic steroids: A survey of 500 users. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 38(4), 51-614.
41. Petróczi, A. (2002). Exploring the doping dilemma in elite sport: Can athletes’ attitudes be responsible for doping. (Published doctoral dissertation). University of Northern Colorado, USA.
42. Pope Jr, H. G., Gruber, A. J., Mangweth, B., Bureau, B., Decol, C., Jouvent, R., & Hudson, J. I. (2000). Body image perception among men in three countries. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(8), 1297-1301.
43. Pritchard, M., & Nielsen, A. (2014). What predicts Drive for Muscularity in collegiate athletes v. non-athletes?. Athletic Insight, 6(1), 1-15.
44. Rohman, L. (2009). The relationship between anabolic androgenic steroids and muscle dysmorphia: A review. Eating Disorders, 17(3), 99-187.
45. Rossi, L., & Tirapegui, J. (2016). Exercise dependence and its relationship with supplementation at gyms in Brazil. Nutrición Hospitalaria, 33(2).
46. Shahhoseini, M., Gharayagh Zandi, H., & Hasani Sangani, M. (2016). Comparison of public health and profile of mood states body building athletes with and without the use of anabolic steroids. Jornal of Development and Motor Learning of Tehran University, 8, 30-51. (In Persian).
47. Shahhosseni, M., Afshari, A. M., & Noury Ghasemabadi. (In press). Psychometric properties of the Drive for Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire among Iranian men athletes. Applied Fundamenals of Menal Health. (In Persian).
48. Strelan, P., Mehaffey, S. J., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). Self-objectification and esteem in young women: The mediating role of exercise. Sex Roles, 48, 89-95
49. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Principal components and factor analysis. Using multivariate statistics, 4, 582-633.
50. Tod, D., & Edwards, C. (2015). A meta-analysis of the drive for muscularity's relationships with exercise behaviour, disordered eating, supplement consumption, and exercise dependence. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 8(1), 185-203.
51. Tod, D., Morrison, T. G., & Edwards, C. (2012). Evaluating validity and test-retest reliability in Four Drive for Muscularity Questionnaires. Body Image, 9, 425-475.
52. Walker, D. C., Anderson, D. A., & Hildebrandt, T. (2009). Body checking behaviors in men. Body Image, 6(3), 70-164.
53. Yager, Z., & O’Dea, J. A. (2014). Relationships between body image, nutritional supplement use, and attitudes towards doping in sport among adolescent boys: Implications for prevention programs. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 11(1), 13
54. Zelli, A., Lucidi, F., & Mallia, L. (2010). The relationships among adolescents’ drive for muscularity, drive for thinness, doping attitudes, and doping intentions. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 4(1), 39-52.
)