Document Type : Original research study
Authors
1 Assistant Professor, Department of Clinical Psychhology
2 M.A of Clinical Psychology, University of Kurdistan
Abstract
Muscle dysmorphia or bigorexia is an obsession with this believe that body is not sufficiently muscular. The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence of muscle dysmorphic disorder and its relationship with psychophysiological components among male athletes referring to bodybuilding gyms in Kermanshah. The statistical population of study was all male athletes in bodybuilding gyms of Kermanshah, that among them 373 were selected based on cluster random sampling. Data were gathered by demographic questionnaires, Rosenberg self-esteem, eating attitudes test, multidimensional perfectionism scale, muscle dysmorphic disorder inventory, muscular appearance satisfaction, and body mass index. Results showed that the prevalence of muscle dysmorphic disorder among male bodybuilding athletes in Kermanshah was 25%, and the relationship between muscle dysmorphic disorder and self-esteem was significant and reversed, with eating disorders and body mass index was significant and direct, and without correlation with perfectionism.
Keywords
Main Subjects
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2. Babusa, B., & Túry, F. (2012). Muscle dysmorphia in Hungarian non-competitive male bodybuilders. Eating and Weight Disorders-Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity, 17(1), 49-53.
3. Baghurst, T. (2009). Perspectives on muscle dysmorphia. International Journal of Men’s Health, 8(1), 1-13.
4. Berrington de Gonzalez, A., Hartge, P., Cerhan, J. R., Flint, A. J., Hannan, L., MacInnis, R. J., ... & Beeson, W. L. (2010). Body-mass index and mortality among 1.46 million white adults. New England Journal of Medicine, 363(23), 2211-2219.
5. Besharat, M. A. (2004). Perfectionism and interpersonal problems. Daneshvar Raftar. 11(7), 1-8. (In Persian).
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8. Chaba, L., Scoffier-Mériaux, S., Lentillon-Kaestner, V., & d’Arripe-Longueville, F. (2018). The drive for muscularity and muscle dysmorphia in bodybuilders: English literature review. Staps, (1), 65-79.
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12. Diehl, B. J., & Baghurst, T. (2016). Biopsychosocial factors in drives for muscularity and muscle dysmorphia among personal trainers. Cogent Psychology, 3(1), 124-134.
13. Foster, A., Shorter, G., & Griffiths, M. (2014). Muscle dysmorphia: Could it be classified as an addiction to body image? Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 4(1), 1-5.
14. Franchina, V., & Coco, G. L. (2018). The influence of social media use on body image concerns. International Journal of Psychoanalysis and Education, 10(1), 5-14.
15. Fritts, J. T. (2016). Predictive Factors of Muscle Dysmorphia, Intent to Use Steroids, and Non-Intuitive Eating in Male Recreational Weightlifters (Doctoral dissertation).
16. Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., Bohr, Y., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1982). The eating attitudes test: psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological medicine, 12(4), 871-878.
17. Goldman, A. L., Pope, H. G., & Bhasin, S. (2018). The Health Threat Posed by the Hidden Epidemic of Anabolic Steroid Use and Body Image Disorders among Young Men. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism.17 (2), 123-131.
18. Grammas, D. L., & Schwartz, J. P. (2009). Internalization of messages from society and perfectionism as predictors of male body image. Body Image, 6(1), 31-36.
19. Granillo, T., Jones-Rodriguez, G., & Carvajal, S. C. (2005). Prevalence of eating disorders in Latina adolescents: associations with substance use and other correlates. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 214–220.
20. Grant, J. E. (2015). Commentary on: Muscle dysmorphia: Could it be classified as an addiction to body image? Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 4, 6–7.
21. Greenway, C. W., & Price, C. (2018). A qualitative study of the motivations for anabolic-androgenic steroid use: The role of muscle dysmorphia and self-esteem in long-term users. Performance enhancement & health, 6(1), 12-20.
22. Grieve, F. G., Truba, N., & Bowersox, S. (2009). Etiology, assessment, and treatment of muscle dysmorphia. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23(4), 306-314.
23. Grieve, R., & Helmick, A. (2008). The influence of men’s self-objectification on the drive for muscularity: Self-esteem, body satisfaction and muscle dysmorphia. International Journal of Men’s Health, 7(3), 13-25.
24. Henson, C. (2004). Potential antecedents of Muscle Dysmorphia. Unpublished master’s thesis, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY.
25. Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., Turnbull-Donovan, W., & Mikail, S. F. (1991). The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale: Reliability, validity, and psychometric properties in psychiatric samples. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3(3), 464.
26. Hildebrandt, T., Langenbucher, J., & Schlundt, D. G. (2004). Muscularity concerns among men: Development of attitudinal and perceptual measures. Body Image, 1(2), 169-181.
27. Kuennen, M. R., & Waldron, J. J. (2007). Relationships Between Specific Personality Traits, Fat Free Mass Indices, and the Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory. Journal of Sport Behavior, 30(4), 51-68.
28. Laber MP. (2002). Adolescent boys and the muscular mole body ideal. Journal of Adolescent Health. 30 (4). 233-242.
29. Mayville, S. B., Williamson, D. A., White, M. A., Netemeyer, R. G., & Drab, D. L. (2002). Development of the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale: A self-report measure for the assessment of muscle dysmorphia symptoms. Assessment, 9(4), 351-360.
30. Mohammadi, N. (2005). The preliminary study of validity and reliability of Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale. Journal of Iranian Psychologists, 1(4), 55-62.
31. Morgan, J. F. (2008). The invisible man: A self-help guide for men with eating disorders, compulsive exercise and bigorexia. Routledge.
32. Mosley, P. E. (2009). Bigorexia: bodybuilding and muscle dysmorphia. European Eating Disorders Review: The Professional Journal of the Eating Disorders Association, 17(3), 191-198.
33. Murray, S. B., Rieger, E., Hildebrandt, T., Karlov, L., Russell, J., Boon, E. ... & Touyz, S. W. (2012). A comparison of eating, exercise, shape, and weight related symptomatology in males with muscle dysmorphia and anorexia nervosa. Body Image, 9(2), 193-200.
34. Murray, S. B., Rieger, E., Karlov, L., & Touyz, S. W. (2013). An investigation of the transdiagnostic model of eating disorders in the context of muscle dysmorphia. European Eating Disorders Review, 21(2), 160-164.
35. Nieuwoudt, J. E., Zhou, S., Coutts, R. A., & Booker, R. (2012). Muscle dysmorphia: Current research and potential classification as a disorder. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(5), 569-577.
36. Olivardia, R., Pope Jr, H. G., & Hudson, J. I. (2000). Muscle dysmorphia in male weightlifters: a case-control study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(8), 1291-1296.
37. Olivardia, R., Pope, H. G., Borowiecki, J. J., & Cohane, G. H. (2004). Biceps and body image: The relationship between muscularity and self-esteem, depression, and eating disorder symptoms. Psychogy of Men and Masculinity, 5, 20-112.
38. Pope, H. G., Jr., Katz, D., & Hudson, J. (1993). Anorexia nervosa and “reverse anorexia” among 108 male bodybuilders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 34, 406–409.
39. Scot, T., Gri, F., & Hsandstuart, B. (2017). Muscle Dysmorphia. Clinical Handbook of Complex and Atypical Eating Disorders, 235.
40. Ströhle, A. (2018). Sports psychiatry: mental health and mental disorders in athletes and exercise treatment of mental disorders. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience, 1-14.
41. Suffolk, M. T., Dovey, T. M., Goodwin, H., & Meyer, C. (2013). Muscle dysmorphia: methodological issues, implications for research. Eating disorders, 21(5), 437-457.
2. Babusa, B., & Túry, F. (2012). Muscle dysmorphia in Hungarian non-competitive male bodybuilders. Eating and Weight Disorders-Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity, 17(1), 49-53.
3. Baghurst, T. (2009). Perspectives on muscle dysmorphia. International Journal of Men’s Health, 8(1), 1-13.
4. Berrington de Gonzalez, A., Hartge, P., Cerhan, J. R., Flint, A. J., Hannan, L., MacInnis, R. J., ... & Beeson, W. L. (2010). Body-mass index and mortality among 1.46 million white adults. New England Journal of Medicine, 363(23), 2211-2219.
5. Besharat, M. A. (2004). Perfectionism and interpersonal problems. Daneshvar Raftar. 11(7), 1-8. (In Persian).
6. Calogero, R. M., & Thompson, J. K. (2010). Gender and body image. In Handbook of gender research in psychology (pp. 153-184). Springer, New York, NY.
7. Cerea, S., Bottesi, G., Pacelli, Q. F., Paoli, A., & Ghisi, M. (2018). Muscle Dysmorphia and its Associated Psychological Features in Three Groups of Recreational Athletes. Scientific reports, 8(1), 8877.
8. Chaba, L., Scoffier-Mériaux, S., Lentillon-Kaestner, V., & d’Arripe-Longueville, F. (2018). The drive for muscularity and muscle dysmorphia in bodybuilders: English literature review. Staps, (1), 65-79.
9. Cunningham, M. L., Griffiths, S., Mitchison, D., Mond, J. M., Castle, D., & Murray, S. B. (2017). Muscle dysmorphia: an overview of clinical features and treatment options. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 31(4), 255-271.
10. Devrim, A., Bilgic, P., & Hongu, N. (2018). Is There Any Relationship Between Body Image Perception, Eating Disorders, and Muscle Dysmorphic Disorders in Male Bodybuilders? American journal of men's health, 12(5), 1746-1758.
11. Dryer, R., Farr, M., Hiramatsu, I., & Quinton, S. (2016). The role of sociocultural influences on symptoms of muscle dysmorphia and eating disorders in men, and the mediating effects of perfectionism. Behavioral Medicine, 42(3), 174-182.
12. Diehl, B. J., & Baghurst, T. (2016). Biopsychosocial factors in drives for muscularity and muscle dysmorphia among personal trainers. Cogent Psychology, 3(1), 124-134.
13. Foster, A., Shorter, G., & Griffiths, M. (2014). Muscle dysmorphia: Could it be classified as an addiction to body image? Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 4(1), 1-5.
14. Franchina, V., & Coco, G. L. (2018). The influence of social media use on body image concerns. International Journal of Psychoanalysis and Education, 10(1), 5-14.
15. Fritts, J. T. (2016). Predictive Factors of Muscle Dysmorphia, Intent to Use Steroids, and Non-Intuitive Eating in Male Recreational Weightlifters (Doctoral dissertation).
16. Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., Bohr, Y., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1982). The eating attitudes test: psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological medicine, 12(4), 871-878.
17. Goldman, A. L., Pope, H. G., & Bhasin, S. (2018). The Health Threat Posed by the Hidden Epidemic of Anabolic Steroid Use and Body Image Disorders among Young Men. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism.17 (2), 123-131.
18. Grammas, D. L., & Schwartz, J. P. (2009). Internalization of messages from society and perfectionism as predictors of male body image. Body Image, 6(1), 31-36.
19. Granillo, T., Jones-Rodriguez, G., & Carvajal, S. C. (2005). Prevalence of eating disorders in Latina adolescents: associations with substance use and other correlates. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 214–220.
20. Grant, J. E. (2015). Commentary on: Muscle dysmorphia: Could it be classified as an addiction to body image? Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 4, 6–7.
21. Greenway, C. W., & Price, C. (2018). A qualitative study of the motivations for anabolic-androgenic steroid use: The role of muscle dysmorphia and self-esteem in long-term users. Performance enhancement & health, 6(1), 12-20.
22. Grieve, F. G., Truba, N., & Bowersox, S. (2009). Etiology, assessment, and treatment of muscle dysmorphia. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23(4), 306-314.
23. Grieve, R., & Helmick, A. (2008). The influence of men’s self-objectification on the drive for muscularity: Self-esteem, body satisfaction and muscle dysmorphia. International Journal of Men’s Health, 7(3), 13-25.
24. Henson, C. (2004). Potential antecedents of Muscle Dysmorphia. Unpublished master’s thesis, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY.
25. Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., Turnbull-Donovan, W., & Mikail, S. F. (1991). The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale: Reliability, validity, and psychometric properties in psychiatric samples. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3(3), 464.
26. Hildebrandt, T., Langenbucher, J., & Schlundt, D. G. (2004). Muscularity concerns among men: Development of attitudinal and perceptual measures. Body Image, 1(2), 169-181.
27. Kuennen, M. R., & Waldron, J. J. (2007). Relationships Between Specific Personality Traits, Fat Free Mass Indices, and the Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory. Journal of Sport Behavior, 30(4), 51-68.
28. Laber MP. (2002). Adolescent boys and the muscular mole body ideal. Journal of Adolescent Health. 30 (4). 233-242.
29. Mayville, S. B., Williamson, D. A., White, M. A., Netemeyer, R. G., & Drab, D. L. (2002). Development of the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale: A self-report measure for the assessment of muscle dysmorphia symptoms. Assessment, 9(4), 351-360.
30. Mohammadi, N. (2005). The preliminary study of validity and reliability of Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale. Journal of Iranian Psychologists, 1(4), 55-62.
31. Morgan, J. F. (2008). The invisible man: A self-help guide for men with eating disorders, compulsive exercise and bigorexia. Routledge.
32. Mosley, P. E. (2009). Bigorexia: bodybuilding and muscle dysmorphia. European Eating Disorders Review: The Professional Journal of the Eating Disorders Association, 17(3), 191-198.
33. Murray, S. B., Rieger, E., Hildebrandt, T., Karlov, L., Russell, J., Boon, E. ... & Touyz, S. W. (2012). A comparison of eating, exercise, shape, and weight related symptomatology in males with muscle dysmorphia and anorexia nervosa. Body Image, 9(2), 193-200.
34. Murray, S. B., Rieger, E., Karlov, L., & Touyz, S. W. (2013). An investigation of the transdiagnostic model of eating disorders in the context of muscle dysmorphia. European Eating Disorders Review, 21(2), 160-164.
35. Nieuwoudt, J. E., Zhou, S., Coutts, R. A., & Booker, R. (2012). Muscle dysmorphia: Current research and potential classification as a disorder. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(5), 569-577.
36. Olivardia, R., Pope Jr, H. G., & Hudson, J. I. (2000). Muscle dysmorphia in male weightlifters: a case-control study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(8), 1291-1296.
37. Olivardia, R., Pope, H. G., Borowiecki, J. J., & Cohane, G. H. (2004). Biceps and body image: The relationship between muscularity and self-esteem, depression, and eating disorder symptoms. Psychogy of Men and Masculinity, 5, 20-112.
38. Pope, H. G., Jr., Katz, D., & Hudson, J. (1993). Anorexia nervosa and “reverse anorexia” among 108 male bodybuilders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 34, 406–409.
39. Scot, T., Gri, F., & Hsandstuart, B. (2017). Muscle Dysmorphia. Clinical Handbook of Complex and Atypical Eating Disorders, 235.
40. Ströhle, A. (2018). Sports psychiatry: mental health and mental disorders in athletes and exercise treatment of mental disorders. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience, 1-14.
41. Suffolk, M. T., Dovey, T. M., Goodwin, H., & Meyer, C. (2013). Muscle dysmorphia: methodological issues, implications for research. Eating disorders, 21(5), 437-457.
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