Document Type : Original research study
Authors
1 Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of physical education and sport sciences, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran
2 Motor behavior department, Faculty of physical education and sport sciences, Allameh Tabataba'i University
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of an integrated physical exercise program on the inhibitory control in adolescent girls. Thirty- two high school female students who met all inclusion criteria of the study were selected and randomly divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group participated in the fourteen integrated physical training sessions, composed of a combination of aerobic, balance, and fine-motor exercises, while the control group received the routine physical education programs. Changes in the subjects' inhibition before and after training were measured by the Stroop test and a factorial repeated measures ANOVA. Our results showed that the trend of changes in interference scores was significantly decreased in the integrated training group. Accordingly, the results of the present study support the effectiveness of combining aerobic, balance and fine-motor exercises to improve the adolescents’ inhibitory control
Keywords
Main Subjects
1. Adleman, N. E., Menon, V., Blasey, C. M., White, C. D., Warsofsky, I. S., Glover, G. H., & Reiss, A. L. (2002). A developmental fMRI study of the Stroop color-word task. Neuroimage, 16(1), 61-75.
2. Basso, J. C., Shang, A., Elman, M., Karmouta, R., & Suzuki, W. A. (2015). Acute exercise improves prefrontal cortex but not hippocampal function in healthy adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 21(10), 791-80
3. Best, J. R. (2010). Effects ofphysical activity on children’s executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Developmental Review, 30(4), 331-351.
4. Budde, H., Voelcker-Rehage, C., Pietraßyk-Kendziorra, S., Ribeiro, P., & Tidow, G. (2008). Acute coordinative exercise improves attentional performance in adolescents. Neuroscience letters, 441(2), 219-223.
5. Cameron, C. E., Cottone, E. A., Murrah, W. M., & Grissmer, D. W. (2016). How are motor skills linked to children's school performance and academic achievement? Child Development Perspectives, 10(2), 93-98.
6. Chang, Y.-K., Tsai, Y.-J., Chen, T.-T., & Hung, T.-M. (2013). The impacts of coordinative exercise on executive function in kindergarten children: an ERP study. Experimental Brain Research, 225(2), 187-196.
7. Coles, K., & Tomporowski, P. D. (2008). Effects of acute exercise on executive processing, short-term and long-term memory. Journal of sports sciences, 26(3), 333-344.
8. Crova, C., Struzzolino, I., Marchetti, R., Masci, I., Vannozzi, G., Forte, R., & Pesce, C. (2014). Cognitively challenging physical activity benefits executive function in overweight children. Journal of sports sciences, 32(3), 201-211.
9. Davis, E. E., Pitchford, N. J., & Limback, E. (2011). The interrelation between cognitive and motor development in typically developing children aged 4–11 years is underpinned by visual processing and fine manual control. British Journal of Psychology, 102(3), 569-584.
10. De Greeff, J. W., Bosker, R. J., Oosterlaan, J., Visscher, C., & Hartman, E. (2017).effects of physical activity on executive functions, attention and academic performance in preadolescent children: a meta-analysis. Journal of science and medicine in sport, 21(5), 501-507.
11. Diamond, A. (2000). Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. Child development, 71(1), 44-56.
12. Diamond, A. (20 12). Activities and programs that improve children’s executive functions. Current directions in psychological science, 21(5), 335-341.
13. Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual review of psychology, 64, 135-168.
14. Diamond, A. (2015). effects of physical exercise on executive functions: going beyond simply moving to moving with thought. Annals of sports medicine and research, 2(1), 1011.
15. Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959-964.
16. Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2019). Aerobic-exercise and resistance-training interventions have been among the least effective ways to improve executive functions of any method tried thus far. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 37, 100572.
17. Drollette, E. S., Pontifex, M. B., Raine, L. B., Scudder, M. R., Moore, R. D., Kao, S. C.,... Castelli, D. M. (2018). effects of the FITKids physical activity randomized controlled trial on conflict monitoring in youth. Psychophysiology, 55(3), e13017.
18. Egger, F., Benzing, V., Conzelmann, A., & Schmidt, M. (2019). Boost your brain, while having a break! The effects of long-term cognitively engaging physical activity breaks on children’s executive functions and academic achievement. PloS one, 14(3).
19. Eslami, M., NamaziZadeh, M., VeazMousavi, M. K. & Shams, A. (2019). Effects of Attentional Games, Physical Training and Mixed Practice on Attention Types and Cognitive Function of Children with Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Sport Psychology Studies, 27; 81-98. In Persian.
20. Esmail, A., Vrinceanu, T., Lussier, M., Predovan, D., Berryman, N., Houle, J., Bherer, L. (2020). Effects of Dance/Movement Training vs. Aerobic Exercise Training on cognition, physical fitness and quality of life in older adults: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 24(1), 212-220.
21. Hillman, C. H., McAuley, E., Erickson, K. I., Liu-Ambrose, T., & Kramer, A. F. (2019). On mindful and mindless physical activity and executive function: A response to Diamond and Ling (2016). Developmental cognitive neuroscience, 37, 100529.
22. Hillman, C. H., Pontifex, M. B., Castelli, D. M., Khan, N. A., Raine, L. B., Scudder, M. R., ... & Kamijo, K. (2014). Effects of the FITKids randomized controlled trial on executive control and brain function. Pediatrics, 134(4), e1063-e1071.
23. Kao, S.-C., Drollette, E. S., Ritondale, J. P., Khan, N., & Hillman, C. H. (2018). The acute effects of high-intensity interval training and moderate-intensity continuous exercise on declarative memory and inhibitory control. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 38, 90-99.
24. Kelly, M. E., Loughrey, D., Lawlor, B. A., Robertson, I. H., Walsh, C., & Brennan, S. (2014). The impact of exercise on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Research Reviews, 16, 12-31.
25. Krafft, C. E., Schwarz, N. F., Chi, L., Weinberger, A. L., Schaeffer, D. J., Pierce, J. E.,... Tomporowski, P. D. (2014). An 8‐month randomized controlled exercise trial alters brain activation during cognitive tasks in overweight children. Obesity, 22(1), 232-242.
26. Lämmle, L., Tittlbach, S., Oberger, J., Worth, A., & Bös, K. (2010). A two-level model of motor performance ability. Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness, 8(1), 41-49.
27. Liu, J.-H., Alderman, B. L., Song, T.-F., Chen, F.-T., Hung, T.-M., & Chang, Y.-K. (2018). A randomized controlled trial of coordination exercise on cognitive function in obese adolescents. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 34, 29-38.
28. Mashhadi, A., Hamedani, N., Soltanifar, A., & Timoor, S. (2012). Response inhibition in chidren with autism spectrum disorders: The application of a computerized Stroop test. Research in clinincal psychology and counseling (Studies in education & psychology), 1(2),87 -104. In Persian
29. McMorris, T., Sproule, J., Turner, A., & Hale, B. J. (2011). Acute, intermediate intensity exercise, and speed and accuracy in working memory tasks: a meta-analytical comparison of effects. Physiology & behavior, 102(3-4), 421-428.
30. Moreau, D., & Conway, A. R. (2013). Cognitive enhancement: a comparative review of computerized and athletic training programs. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(1), 155-183.
31. North, T. C., McCULLAGH, P., & TRAN, Z. V. (1990). Effect of exercise on depression. Exercise and sport sciences reviews, 18(1), 379-416.
32. Oberer, N., Gashaj, V., & Roebers, C. M. (2018). Executive functions, visual-motor coordination, physical fitness and academic achievement: Longitudinal relations in typically developing children. Human movement science, 58, 69-79.
33. Pate, R. R., Stevens, J., Webber, L. S., Dowda, M., Murray, D. M., Young, D. R., & Going, S. (2009). Age-related change in physical activity in adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 44(3), 275-282.
34. Pesce, C., Crova, C., Marchetti, R., Struzzolino, I., Masci, I., Vannozzi, G., & Forte, R. (2013). Searching for cognitively optimal challenge point in physical activity for children with typical and atypical motor development. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 6(3), 172-180.
35. Pitchford, N. J., Papini, C., Outhwaite, L. A., & Gulliford, A. (2016). Fine motor skills predict maths ability better than they predict reading ability in the early primary school years. Frontiers in psychology, 7, 783.
36. Raine, L. B., Kao, S.-C., Pindus, D., Westfall, D. R., Shigeta, T. T., Logan, N.,... Pontifex, M. B. (2018). A large-scale reanalysis of childhood fitness and inhibitory control. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 2(2), 170-192.
37. Rigoli, D., Piek, J. P., Kane, R., & Oosterlaan, J. (2012). Motor coordination, working memory, and academic achievement in a normative adolescent sample: Testing a mediation model. Archives of clinical neuropsychology, 27(7), 766-780.
38. Roy, A., Kefi, M.-Z., Bellaj, T., Fournet, N., Le Gall, D., & Roulin, J.-L. (2016). The Stroop test: A developmental study in a French children sample aged 7 to 12 years. Psychologie Française 63(2), 129-143.
39. Safavi, S., Ghazinoor, N., Abadi, A. (2018). The Effects of a Training Course with an Emphasis on Fine Motor Skills on Executive Functions of Children with Learning Disorder. Motor Behavior, 9(30), 37-56. doi: 10.22089/mbj.2018.3235.1396.In Persian
40. Schmidt, M., Egger, F., Benzing, V., Jäger, K., Conzelmann, A., Roebers, C. M., & Pesce, C. (2017). Disentangling the relationship between children’s motor ability, executive function and academic achievement. PloS one, 12(8), e0182845.
41. Schmidt, M., Jäger, K., Egger, F., Roebers, C. M., & Conzelmann, A. (2015). Cognitively engaging chronic physical activity, but not aerobic exercise, affects executive functions in primary school children: a group-randomized controlled trial. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 37(6), 575-591.
42. Ward, N., Paul, E., Watson, P., Cooke, G., Hillman, C., Cohen, N., . . . Barbey, A. (2017). Enhanced learning through multimodal training: Evidence from a comprehensive cognitive, physical fitness, and neuroscience intervention. Scientific reports, 7(1), 5808.
43. Westendorp, M., Houwen, S., Hartman, E., Mombarg, R., Smith, J., & Visscher, C. (2014). Effect of a ball skill intervention on children’s ball skills and cognitive functions. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc, 46, 414-422.
44. Westfall, D. R., Gejl, A. K., Tarp, J., Wedderkopp, N., Kramer, A. F., Hillman, C. H., & Bugge, A. (2018). Associations between aerobic fitness and cognitive control in adolescents. Frontiers in psychology, 9.
2. Basso, J. C., Shang, A., Elman, M., Karmouta, R., & Suzuki, W. A. (2015). Acute exercise improves prefrontal cortex but not hippocampal function in healthy adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 21(10), 791-80
3. Best, J. R. (2010). Effects ofphysical activity on children’s executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Developmental Review, 30(4), 331-351.
4. Budde, H., Voelcker-Rehage, C., Pietraßyk-Kendziorra, S., Ribeiro, P., & Tidow, G. (2008). Acute coordinative exercise improves attentional performance in adolescents. Neuroscience letters, 441(2), 219-223.
5. Cameron, C. E., Cottone, E. A., Murrah, W. M., & Grissmer, D. W. (2016). How are motor skills linked to children's school performance and academic achievement? Child Development Perspectives, 10(2), 93-98.
6. Chang, Y.-K., Tsai, Y.-J., Chen, T.-T., & Hung, T.-M. (2013). The impacts of coordinative exercise on executive function in kindergarten children: an ERP study. Experimental Brain Research, 225(2), 187-196.
7. Coles, K., & Tomporowski, P. D. (2008). Effects of acute exercise on executive processing, short-term and long-term memory. Journal of sports sciences, 26(3), 333-344.
8. Crova, C., Struzzolino, I., Marchetti, R., Masci, I., Vannozzi, G., Forte, R., & Pesce, C. (2014). Cognitively challenging physical activity benefits executive function in overweight children. Journal of sports sciences, 32(3), 201-211.
9. Davis, E. E., Pitchford, N. J., & Limback, E. (2011). The interrelation between cognitive and motor development in typically developing children aged 4–11 years is underpinned by visual processing and fine manual control. British Journal of Psychology, 102(3), 569-584.
10. De Greeff, J. W., Bosker, R. J., Oosterlaan, J., Visscher, C., & Hartman, E. (2017).effects of physical activity on executive functions, attention and academic performance in preadolescent children: a meta-analysis. Journal of science and medicine in sport, 21(5), 501-507.
11. Diamond, A. (2000). Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. Child development, 71(1), 44-56.
12. Diamond, A. (20 12). Activities and programs that improve children’s executive functions. Current directions in psychological science, 21(5), 335-341.
13. Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual review of psychology, 64, 135-168.
14. Diamond, A. (2015). effects of physical exercise on executive functions: going beyond simply moving to moving with thought. Annals of sports medicine and research, 2(1), 1011.
15. Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959-964.
16. Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2019). Aerobic-exercise and resistance-training interventions have been among the least effective ways to improve executive functions of any method tried thus far. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 37, 100572.
17. Drollette, E. S., Pontifex, M. B., Raine, L. B., Scudder, M. R., Moore, R. D., Kao, S. C.,... Castelli, D. M. (2018). effects of the FITKids physical activity randomized controlled trial on conflict monitoring in youth. Psychophysiology, 55(3), e13017.
18. Egger, F., Benzing, V., Conzelmann, A., & Schmidt, M. (2019). Boost your brain, while having a break! The effects of long-term cognitively engaging physical activity breaks on children’s executive functions and academic achievement. PloS one, 14(3).
19. Eslami, M., NamaziZadeh, M., VeazMousavi, M. K. & Shams, A. (2019). Effects of Attentional Games, Physical Training and Mixed Practice on Attention Types and Cognitive Function of Children with Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Sport Psychology Studies, 27; 81-98. In Persian.
20. Esmail, A., Vrinceanu, T., Lussier, M., Predovan, D., Berryman, N., Houle, J., Bherer, L. (2020). Effects of Dance/Movement Training vs. Aerobic Exercise Training on cognition, physical fitness and quality of life in older adults: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 24(1), 212-220.
21. Hillman, C. H., McAuley, E., Erickson, K. I., Liu-Ambrose, T., & Kramer, A. F. (2019). On mindful and mindless physical activity and executive function: A response to Diamond and Ling (2016). Developmental cognitive neuroscience, 37, 100529.
22. Hillman, C. H., Pontifex, M. B., Castelli, D. M., Khan, N. A., Raine, L. B., Scudder, M. R., ... & Kamijo, K. (2014). Effects of the FITKids randomized controlled trial on executive control and brain function. Pediatrics, 134(4), e1063-e1071.
23. Kao, S.-C., Drollette, E. S., Ritondale, J. P., Khan, N., & Hillman, C. H. (2018). The acute effects of high-intensity interval training and moderate-intensity continuous exercise on declarative memory and inhibitory control. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 38, 90-99.
24. Kelly, M. E., Loughrey, D., Lawlor, B. A., Robertson, I. H., Walsh, C., & Brennan, S. (2014). The impact of exercise on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Research Reviews, 16, 12-31.
25. Krafft, C. E., Schwarz, N. F., Chi, L., Weinberger, A. L., Schaeffer, D. J., Pierce, J. E.,... Tomporowski, P. D. (2014). An 8‐month randomized controlled exercise trial alters brain activation during cognitive tasks in overweight children. Obesity, 22(1), 232-242.
26. Lämmle, L., Tittlbach, S., Oberger, J., Worth, A., & Bös, K. (2010). A two-level model of motor performance ability. Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness, 8(1), 41-49.
27. Liu, J.-H., Alderman, B. L., Song, T.-F., Chen, F.-T., Hung, T.-M., & Chang, Y.-K. (2018). A randomized controlled trial of coordination exercise on cognitive function in obese adolescents. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 34, 29-38.
28. Mashhadi, A., Hamedani, N., Soltanifar, A., & Timoor, S. (2012). Response inhibition in chidren with autism spectrum disorders: The application of a computerized Stroop test. Research in clinincal psychology and counseling (Studies in education & psychology), 1(2),87 -104. In Persian
29. McMorris, T., Sproule, J., Turner, A., & Hale, B. J. (2011). Acute, intermediate intensity exercise, and speed and accuracy in working memory tasks: a meta-analytical comparison of effects. Physiology & behavior, 102(3-4), 421-428.
30. Moreau, D., & Conway, A. R. (2013). Cognitive enhancement: a comparative review of computerized and athletic training programs. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(1), 155-183.
31. North, T. C., McCULLAGH, P., & TRAN, Z. V. (1990). Effect of exercise on depression. Exercise and sport sciences reviews, 18(1), 379-416.
32. Oberer, N., Gashaj, V., & Roebers, C. M. (2018). Executive functions, visual-motor coordination, physical fitness and academic achievement: Longitudinal relations in typically developing children. Human movement science, 58, 69-79.
33. Pate, R. R., Stevens, J., Webber, L. S., Dowda, M., Murray, D. M., Young, D. R., & Going, S. (2009). Age-related change in physical activity in adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 44(3), 275-282.
34. Pesce, C., Crova, C., Marchetti, R., Struzzolino, I., Masci, I., Vannozzi, G., & Forte, R. (2013). Searching for cognitively optimal challenge point in physical activity for children with typical and atypical motor development. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 6(3), 172-180.
35. Pitchford, N. J., Papini, C., Outhwaite, L. A., & Gulliford, A. (2016). Fine motor skills predict maths ability better than they predict reading ability in the early primary school years. Frontiers in psychology, 7, 783.
36. Raine, L. B., Kao, S.-C., Pindus, D., Westfall, D. R., Shigeta, T. T., Logan, N.,... Pontifex, M. B. (2018). A large-scale reanalysis of childhood fitness and inhibitory control. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 2(2), 170-192.
37. Rigoli, D., Piek, J. P., Kane, R., & Oosterlaan, J. (2012). Motor coordination, working memory, and academic achievement in a normative adolescent sample: Testing a mediation model. Archives of clinical neuropsychology, 27(7), 766-780.
38. Roy, A., Kefi, M.-Z., Bellaj, T., Fournet, N., Le Gall, D., & Roulin, J.-L. (2016). The Stroop test: A developmental study in a French children sample aged 7 to 12 years. Psychologie Française 63(2), 129-143.
39. Safavi, S., Ghazinoor, N., Abadi, A. (2018). The Effects of a Training Course with an Emphasis on Fine Motor Skills on Executive Functions of Children with Learning Disorder. Motor Behavior, 9(30), 37-56. doi: 10.22089/mbj.2018.3235.1396.In Persian
40. Schmidt, M., Egger, F., Benzing, V., Jäger, K., Conzelmann, A., Roebers, C. M., & Pesce, C. (2017). Disentangling the relationship between children’s motor ability, executive function and academic achievement. PloS one, 12(8), e0182845.
41. Schmidt, M., Jäger, K., Egger, F., Roebers, C. M., & Conzelmann, A. (2015). Cognitively engaging chronic physical activity, but not aerobic exercise, affects executive functions in primary school children: a group-randomized controlled trial. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 37(6), 575-591.
42. Ward, N., Paul, E., Watson, P., Cooke, G., Hillman, C., Cohen, N., . . . Barbey, A. (2017). Enhanced learning through multimodal training: Evidence from a comprehensive cognitive, physical fitness, and neuroscience intervention. Scientific reports, 7(1), 5808.
43. Westendorp, M., Houwen, S., Hartman, E., Mombarg, R., Smith, J., & Visscher, C. (2014). Effect of a ball skill intervention on children’s ball skills and cognitive functions. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc, 46, 414-422.
44. Westfall, D. R., Gejl, A. K., Tarp, J., Wedderkopp, N., Kramer, A. F., Hillman, C. H., & Bugge, A. (2018). Associations between aerobic fitness and cognitive control in adolescents. Frontiers in psychology, 9.
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