Document Type : Original research study
Authors
1 Faculty of sport science, Hakim Sabzevari university, Sabzevar, Iran
2 3. M.Sc. student of sport management, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz Branch, Iran
Abstract
By spreading of Quaid-19 virus in Iran, most sports clubs were closed and league and championship matches were cancelled. The purpose of this study was to investigate the psychological experiences of Iranian elite athletes in quarantine due to the prevalence of coronavirus. Methodologically, this research is in the range of qualitative studies and a kind of phenomenological research. The population of the present study included Iranian elite male and female athletes (participation in premier leagues and membership in national teams) in various sports who had experience of living in home quarantine in the last 60 days. Participants in the study were selected in a purposeful sampling way and the sampling continued until to reach saturation. In general, 20 elite athletes were interviewed. A seven-step Colaizzi method was used to analyze qualitative data. Based on the analysis of the findings of the present study, nine main themes were achieved including problem-oriented coping strategies, task-oriented goal orientation, cognitive flexibility, compromised strategy of emotion cognitive regulation, negative self-assessment, negative mood, lack of enough motivation, cognitive anxiety, and feeling of homesickness. The results of the present study showed that home quarantine had different positive and negative psychological effects on Iranian elite athletes due to the prevalence of Quaid-19 disease
Keywords
Main Subjects
1. Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. N. (2015). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. New York And London Psychology Press.
2. Alimohamadi, Y., & Sepandi, M. (2020). Basic Reproduction Number: An important Indicator for the Future of the COVID-19 Epidemic in Iran. Journal Mil Med, 22(1), 96-97. In Persian.
3. Anshel, M. H., & Kaissidis, A. N. (1997). Coping style and situational appraisals as predictors of coping strategies following stressful events in sport as a function of gender and skill level. British Journal of Psychology, 88(2), 263-276.
4. Anderson, R. M., Heesterbeek, H., Klinkenberg, D., & Hollingsworth, T. D. (2020). How will country-based mitigation measures influence the course of the COVID-19 epidemic? The Lancet, 395(10228), 931-934.
5. Atayfar R, Shaghaghi F. the relationship between goal orientations, self-regulated learning and academic achievement in third grade female students in math-physics and humanities disciplines. Journal of Education, 106, 49-65. In Persian.
6. Bao, Y., Sun, Y., Meng, S., Shi, J., & Lu, L. (2020). 2019-nCoV epidemic: address mental health care to empower society. The Lancet, 395(10224), e37-e38.
7. Baser, B., Bayar, P., & Ghorbanzadeh, B. (2013). A determination of goal orientation in respect to the age categories and gender volleyball players in relation to their success. European Journal of Experimental Biology, 3(1), 81-84.
8. Bakirtzoglou, P., & Ioannou, P. (2011). Goal orientations, motivational climate and dispositional flow in Greek secondary education students participating in physical education lesson: differences based on gender. Facta Universitatis: Series Physical Education and Sport, 9(3), 295-306.
9. Bazargan, A. (2010). Introduction to Qualitative and Mixed Research Methods. Tehran: Didar Publishing. 2nd ed. In Persian.
10. Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). El impacto psicológico de la cuarentena y cómo reducirla: revisión rápida de las pruebas. Lancet, 395, 912-20.
11. Castillo, I., Tomás, I., Balaguer, I., Fonseca, A. M., Dias, C., & Duda, J. L. (2010). The Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire: Testing for measurement invariance and latent mean differences in Spanish and Portuguese adolescents. International Journal of Testing, 10(1), 21-32.
12. Cheng, W. N. K., & Hardy, L. (2016). Three-dimensional model of performance anxiety: Tests of the adaptive potential of the regulatory dimension of anxiety. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 255-263.
13. Chen, N., Zhou, M., Dong, X., Qu, J., Gong, F., Han, Y. ... & Yu, T. (2020). Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. The Lancet, 395(10223), 507-513.
14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017). Legal authorities for isolation and quarantine. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA surgery, 152(8), 784-791.
15. Corsini, A., Bisciotti, G. N., Eirale, C., & Volpi, P. (2020). Football cannot restart soon during the COVID-19 emergency! A critical perspective from the Italian experience and a call for action. Br J Sports, 10 (1136)
16. Cope, D. G. (2014, January). Methods and meanings: credibility and trustworthiness of qualitative research. In Oncology nursing forum, 41(1).
17. Dajani, D. R., & Uddin, L. Q. (2015). Demystifying cognitive flexibility: Implications for clinical and developmental neuroscience. Trends in neurosciences, 38(9), 571-578.
18. Dennis, J. P., & Vander Wal, J. S. (2010). The cognitive flexibility inventory: Instrument development and estimates of reliability and validity. Cognitive therapy and research, 34(3), 241-253.
19. El Gilany, A. H., Badawi, K., El Khawaga, G., & Awadalla, N. (2011). Physical activity profile of students in Mansoura University, Egypt. EMHJ-Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 17 (8), 694-702, 2011.
20. Farnoosh, G., Alishiri, G., Hosseini Zijoud, S. R., Dorostkar, R., & Jalali Farahani, A. (2020). Understanding the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Based on Available Evidence-A Narrative Review. J Mil Med, 22(1), 1-11. In Persian.
21. Fagaras, S. P., Radu, L. E., & Vanvu, G. (2015). The level of physical activity of university students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 197, 1454-1457.
22. Fletcher, D., & Hanton, S. (2001). The relationship between psychological skills usage and competitive anxiety responses. Psychology of sport and exercise, 2(2), 89-101.
23. Ford, I. W., Eklund, R. C., & Gordon, S. (2000). An examination of psychosocial variables moderating the relationship between life stress and injury time-loss among athletes of a high standard. Journal of sports sciences, 18(5), 301-312.
24. Gaudreau, P., & Blondin, J. P. (2002). Development of a questionnaire for the assessment of coping strategies employed by athletes in competitive sport settings. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 3(1), 1-34.
25. Gómez-López, M., Gallegos, A. G., & Extremera, A. B. (2010). Perceived barriers by university students in the practice of physical activities. Journal of sports science & medicine, 9(3), 374.
26. Gotwals, J., & Wayment, H. A. (2002). Evaluation strategies, self-esteem and athletic performance. Current Research in Social Psychology, 8(6), 84-101.
27. Gould, D., Guinan, D., Greenleaf, C., Medbery, R., & Peterson, K. (1999). Factors affecting Olympic performance: Perceptions of athletes and coaches from more and less successful teams. The sport psychologist, 13(4), 371-394.
28. Hays, K., Thomas, O., Maynard, I., & Bawden, M. (2009). The role of confidence in world-class sport performance. Journal of sports sciences, 27(11), 1185-1199.
29. Hatamleh, M. R. (2013). The life transitions of high performance athlete's retirement from sport. European scientific journal, 9(11).
30. Hasani, J., & Miraghaie, A. M. (2012). The relationship between strategies for cognitive regulation of emotions and suicidal ideation. Contemporary Psychology, Biannual Journal of the Iranian Psychological Association, 7(1), 61-72.
31. Holloway, I., & Galvin, K. (2016). Qualitative research in nursing and healthcare. John Wiley & Sons. England.
32. Holland, M. J., Woodcock, C., Cumming, J., & Duda, J. L. (2010). Mental qualities and employed mental techniques of young elite team sport athletes. Journal of clinical sport psychology, 4(1), 19-38.
33. Hutchison, M., Mainwaring, L. M., Comper, P., Richards, D. W., & Bisschop, S. M. (2009). Differential emotional responses of varsity athletes to concussion and musculoskeletal injuries. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 19(1), 13-19.
34. Huang, C., Wang, Y., Li, X., Ren, L., Zhao, J., Hu, Y. ... & Cheng, Z. (2020). Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. The lancet, 395(10223), 497-506.Krohne, H. W., & Hindel, C. (1988). Trait anxiety, state anxiety, and coping behavior as predictors of athletic performance. Anxiety Research, 1(3), 225-234.
35. Kruger, A. (2010). Sport psychological skills that discriminate between successful and less successful female university field hockey players, African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 16 (2) June 2010: pp. 240-250:: errata. African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 16(3), 1.
36. Lane, A. M., Thelwell, R. C., Lowther, J., & Devonport, T. J. (2009). Emotional intelligence and psychological skills use among athletes. Social behavior and personality: an international Journal, 37(2), 195-201.
37. Lane, A. M., Whyte, G. P., Terry, P. C., & Nevill, A. M. (2005). Mood, self-set goals and examination performance: the moderating effect of depressed mood. Personality and individual differences, 39(1), 143-153.
38. Le, B., Loving, T. J., Lewandowski Jr, G. W., Feinberg, E. G., Johnson, K. C., Fiorentino, R., & Ing, J. (2008). Missing a romantic partner: A prototype analysis. Personal Relationships, 15(4), 511-532.
39. Li, S., Wang, Y., Xue, J., Zhao, N., & Zhu, T. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 epidemic declaration on psychological consequences: a study on active Weibo users. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(6), 2032.
40. Louvet, B., & Campo, M. (2019). Do high emotional intelligent soccer referees better cope with competitive stressors? Movement Sport Sciences, (3), 17-26.
41. Mahdizadeh, R., Andam, R., Roozbahani, Sh. (2013). Obstacles to the Development of Public Sports in Universities. Journal of Research in Academic Sport, 1 (3): 109 -126. In Persian.
42. Maria, N., Zaid, A., Catrin, S., Ahmed, K., Ahmed, A. J., Christos, I., & Riaz, A. (2020). The socio-economic implications of the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19): A review. International Journal of Surgery, 78, 185-193.
43. Mirshekari, K., Zarezade, M., and Emami, A. (2015). Prediction of Athlete Burnout based on Competitive Anxiety and Motivational Regulations in Elite Athletes. Journal of Sport Psychology Studies, 13; Pp: 119-136. In Persian.
44. Mohamadi Torkamani1, E., Bagheri, Q., Zarei Matin, H., Moeini, H., Khanifar, H. (2016). Iranian Elite Athlete’s Lifestyles (Providing a Grounded Theory). Research on Educational Sport, 4(11), 71-96. In Persian.
45. Nicola, M., Alsafi, Z., Sohrabi, C., Kerwan, A., Al-Jabir, A., Iosifidis, C. ... & Agha, R. (2020). The Socio-Economic Implications of the Coronavirus and COVID-19 Pandemic: A Review. International Journal of Surgery (London, England),78, 185.
46. Neil, R., Wilson, K., Mellalieu, S. D., Hanton, S., & Taylor, J. (2012). Competitive anxiety intensity and interpretation: A two-study investigation into their relationship with performance. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10(2), 96-111.
47. Nicholls, A. R., Polman, R., & Levy, A. R. (2010). Coping self-efficacy, pre-competitive anxiety, and subjective performance among athletes. European journal of sport science, 10(2), 97-102.
48. Niknami, M., Dehghani, F., Bouraki, S., Kazem Nejad Leili, E., & Soleimani, R. (2014). Strategies among Students of Guilan University of Medical Sciences. Journal of Holistic Nursing and Midwifery, 24(4), 62-68. In Persian.
49. Noh, Y. E. (2005). Psychosocial interventions for the prevention of injury in dance (Doctoral dissertation, Victoria University).
50. O'Rourke, D. J., Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., & Cumming, S. P. (2014). Relations of parent-and coach-initiated motivational climates to young athletes’ self-esteem, performance anxiety, and autonomous motivation: who is more influential? Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 26(4), 395-408.
51. Ochsner, K. N., & Gross, J. J. (2005). The cognitive control of emotion. Trends in cognitive sciences, 9(5), 242-249.
52. Payne, J. W., Payne, J. W., Bettman, J. R., & Johnson, E. J. (1993). The adaptive decision maker. Cambridge .Cambridge university press.
53. Papaioannou, A. G., Ampatzoglou, G., Kalogiannis, P., & Sagovits, A. (2008). Social agents, achievement goals, satisfaction and academic achievement in youth sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(2), 122-141.
54. Remuzzi, A., & Remuzzi, G. (2020). COVID-19 and Italy: what next? The Lancet,10 (5): 365-366
55. Ricciardi, A. A. (2007). Prediction of exercise adherence with goal orientations and motivational climate. Degree of Master of Science. Doctoral dissertation, Colorado State University. Libraries.
56. Rusbult, C. E., & Buunk, B. P. (1993). Commitment processes in close relationships: An interdependence analysis. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 10(2), 175-204.
57. Sheldon, J. P. (2003). Self-evaluation of competence by adult athletes: Its relation to skill level and personal importance. The Sport Psychologist, 17(4), 426-443.
58. Simpson, R. J., Campbell, J. P., Gleeson, M., Krüger, K., Nieman, D. C., Pyne, D. B., & Walsh, N. P. (2020). Can exercise affect immune function to increase susceptibility to infection? Exercise Immunology Review, 26, 8-22.
59. Singer, R. N., Murphey, M., & Tennant, L. K. (Eds.). (1993). Handbook of research on sport psychology. Macmillan.
60. Sit, C. H., & Lindner, K. J. (2007). Achievement goal profiles, perceived ability and participation motivation for sport and physical activity. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 38(3), 283-303.
61. Spivey, L. M., & Hritz, N. M. (2013). A longitudinal study of recreational sport participation and constraints. Recreational sports journal, 37(1), 14-28.
62. Stirling, A. E., & Kerr, G. A. (2006). Perfectionism and mood states among recreational and elite athletes. Athletic Insight, 8(4), 13-27.
63. Taghizadeh, M. E., & Farmani, A. (2014). A study of the role of cognitive flexibility in predicting hopelessness and resilience among University students.. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 1(2), 75-67. In Persian.
64. Taylor, S. E., Neter, E., & Wayment, H. A. (1995). Self-evaluation processes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(12), 1278-1287.
65. Thelwell, R. C., Lane, A. M., & Weston, N. J. (2007). Mood states, self-set goals, self-efficacy and performance in academic examinations. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(3), 573-583.
66. Timpka, T. (2020). Sports Health during the SARS-Cov-2 Pandemic. Sports Medicine (Auckland, Nz), 50: 1413-1416.
67. Totterdell, P., & Leach, D. (2001). Negative mood regulation expectancies and sports performance: An investigation involving professional cricketers. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2(4), 249-265.
68. Van Manen, M. (2016). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Routledge. London and New York.
69. VaezMousavi, M., and Mussayebi, F. (2012). Sports Psychology. (Vol. 4). Tehran: samt. In Persian.
70. Vealey, R. S., & Chase, M. A. (2008). Self-Confidence in Sport. In T. S. Horn (Ed.), Advances in Sport Psychology (3rd ed., pp. 66-97). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
71. Woodman, T. I. M., & Hardy, L. E. W. (2003). The relative impact of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence upon sport performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of sports sciences, 21(6), 443-457.
72. Zangrillo, A., Beretta, L., Silvani, P., Colombo, S., Scandroglio, A. M., Dell’Acqua, A. ... & Monaco, F. (2020). Fast reshaping of intensive care unit facilities in a large metropolitan hospital in Milan, Italy: facing the COVID-19 pandemic emergency. Critical Care and Resuscitation: Journal of the Australasian Academy of Critical Care Medicine,22(2), 91..
73. Zheng, Y. Y., Ma, Y. T., Zhang, J. Y., & Xie, X. (2020). COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system. Nature Reviews Cardiology, 17(5), 259-260.
74. Zhu, H., Wei, L., & Niu, P. (2020). The novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China. Global health research and policy, 5(1), 1-3.
75. Zong, J. G., Cao, X. Y., Cao, Y., Shi, Y. F., Wang, Y. N., Yan, C., ... & Chan, R. C. (2010). Coping flexibility in college students with depressive symptoms. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 8(1), 66
)