Document Type : Original research study
Authors
1 Department of Physical Education, Central Tehran Branch, Azad Islamic University, Tehran, Iran
2 Associate professor in Sport Management/Islamic Azad University of Tehran central branch
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the causal relationships of cognitive and affective processes of intention to change with the components of sport commitment model among athletes. To this aim, 370 student athletes studying physical education (184 males and 186 females) were sampled using simple cluster random method from the Tehran city’s Islamic Azad universities and completed the questionnaires. Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation coefficient and structural equation modeling at a 95% confidence level. The results showed that perception of change by increasing irrational ideas and subsequently increasing negative emotions has a significant effect on the decrease of intention to change. Also, intention to change directly, as well as through reducing sport enjoyment and involvement opportunities, and increasing involvement alternatives, had a significant effect on the sport commitment. The findings are discussed with emphasis on the mechanism of sport commitment formation in situations demanding change
Keywords
- Cognitive Distortion
- Irrational Ideas
- Emotions
- Intention\ Resistance to Change
- Sport Commitment Model
Main Subjects
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2. Baron-Thiene, A., & Alfermann, D. (2015). Personal characteristics as predictors for dual career dropout versus Continuation -A prospective study of adolescent athletes from German elite sport schools. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 21(1), 42-49.
3. Beck, A. T. (1988). Love is never enough. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
4. Bovey, W. H., & Hede, A. (2001). Resistance to organizational change: The role of cognitive and affective processes. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 22(8), 372-382.
5. Brown, D. J., Fletcher, D., Henry, I., Borrie, A., Emmett, J., Buzza, A., & Wombwell, S. (2015). A British university case study of the transitional experiences of student-athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 21(1), 78-90.
6. Coakley, S. C. (2006). A phenomenological exploration of the sport-career transition experiences that affect subjective well-being of former national football league players (doctoral dissertation). University of North Carolina at Greensboro, United States.
7. Coghlan, D. (1993). A person-centered approach to dealing with resistance to change. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 14(4), 10-14.
8. Corey, G. (1996). Theory and practice of counselling and psychotherapy (5th ed.). Brooks, CA: Cole Publishing Company.
9. Darling, P. (1993). Getting results: The trainer's skills. Management Development Review, 6(5), 25-29.
10. De Brandt, K., Wylleman, P., Torregrossa, M., Schipper-Van Veldhoven, N., Minelli, D., Defruyt, S., & De Knop, P. (2018). Exploring the factor structure of the Dual Career Competency Questionnaire for Athletes in European pupil- and student-athletes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1–18. doi: 10.1080/1612197x.2018.1511619.
11. Defruyt, S., Wylleman, P., Torregrossa, M., Schipper-van Veldhoven, N., Debois, N., Cecić Erpič, S., & De Brandt, K. (2019). The development and initial validation of the dual career competency questionnaire for support providers (DCCQ-SP). International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/1612197X.2019.1581827.
12. Ellis, A. & Harper, R. A. (1975). A new guide to rational living. North Hollywood, CA: Wilshire Book Company.
13. European Commission (2012). EU guidelines on dual careers of athletes: Recommended policy actions in support of dual careers in high-performance sport (Approved by the EU Expert Group "Education & Training in Sport" at its meeting in Poznań on 28 September 2012, forwarded for approval by the Council of Ministers and published on the ENGSO web site). Brussels: Sport Unit, European Commission.
14. Haerle, R. (1975). Career patterns and career contingencies of professional baseball players: an occupational analysis. In: D. W. Ball & J. W. Loy, (Eds.), Sport and the Social Order. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 461-519.
15. Halaji, M., Zardoshtian, S., & Tondnevis, F. (2011). The relationship between transformational and transactional leadership styles of coaches with the commitment of the players of the Iranian handball leagues. Research in Sport Sciences, 11(1), 27-22. In Persian.
16. Hastings, D. W., Kurth, S. B., & Meyer, J. (1989). Competitive swimming careers through the life course. Sociology of Sport Journal, 6(3), 278-284.
17. Hoseini, A., Bahrololom, H., & Hoseininia, S. R. (2015). Examination of sport commitment model among the women participating in sport activities. Journal of Sport Management, 7(2), 293-307. In Persian.
18. Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1-55.
19. Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining Sample Size for Research Activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607-610.
20. Kyle, N. (1993). Staying with the flow of change. Journal for Quality and Participation, 16(4), 34-42.
21. Lally, P., & Kerr, G. (2005). The career planning, athletic identity, and student role identity of intercollegiate student athletes. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76(3), 275-290.
22. Lavallee, D, & Wylleman, P. (2000). Career transitions in sport: International perspectives. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
23. Linnér, L., Stambulova, N. B., Lindahl, K., & Wylleman, P. (2019). Swedish university student-athletes’ dual career scenarios and competences. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/1612197X.2019.1611898.
24. Martens, M., & Cox, R. (2000). Career development in college varsity athletes. Journal of College Student Development, 41(2), 172-180.
25. Matlin, M. W. (1995). Psychology (2nd ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
26. McPherson, B. D. (1978). Former professional athletes' adjustment to retirement. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 6(8), 52-59.
27. McPherson, B. D. (1980). Retirement from professional sport: The process and problems of occupational and psychological adjustment. Sociological symposium, 30(1), 126-143.
28. Merkel, S., Schmidt, S. L., & Torgler, B. (2017). The effect of individual uncertainty on the specificity of human capital: Empirical evidence from career developments in professional soccer. Applied Economics, 49(21), 2083-2095.
29. Mirhoseini, M. A., Hadavi, S. F., & Mozafari, S. A. A. (2012). Validity and reliability of sport commitment model among athlete students. Journal of Sport Management, 15(1), 105-121. In Persian.
30. Parsamehr, M. (2013). Test of Scanlan and Simon’s sport commitment model in taekwondo. Research in Sport Management and Motor Behavior, 2(4), 1-12. In Persian.
31. Pearson, R. E., & Petitpas, A. (1990). Transitions of athletes: Developmental and preventive perspectives. Journal of counseling and Development, 69(1), 7-10.
32. Pink, M. A., Lonie, B. E., & Saunders, J. (2018). The challenges of the semi-professional footballer: A case study of the management of dual career development at a Victorian Football League (VFL) club. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 35(1), 160-170.
33. Rosenberg, E. (1980a). Social disorganization aspects of professional sports careers. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 4(4), 14-25.
34. Ryba, T. V., Stambulova, N. B., Ronkainen, N. J., Bundgaard, J., & Selanne, H. (2015). Dual career pathways of transnational athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 21(1), 125-134.
35. Salmela, J. H. (1994). Phases and transitions across sport careers. In D. Hackfort (Ed.), Psycho-Social Issues and Interventions in Elite Sports (pp. 11-28). Frankfurt, Germany: Lang.
36. Sandstedt, S., Cox, R., Martens, M., Ward, G., Webber, N., & Ivey, S. (2004). Development of the student-athlete career situation inventory (SACSI). Journal of Career Development, 31(2), 79-93.
37. Scanlan, T. K., Carpenter, P. J., Schmidt, G. W., Simons, J. P., & Keeler, B. (1993a). An introduction to the sport commitment model. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15(1), 1-15.
38. Scanlan, T. K., Carpenter, P. J., Simons, J. P., Schmidt, G. W., & Keeler, B. (1993b). The sport commitment model: Measurement development for the youth-sport domain. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15(1), 16-38.
39. Scanlan, T. K., Russell, D. G., Beals, K. P., & Scanlan, L. A. (2003). Project on elite athlete commitment (PEAK): II. A direct test and expansion of the sport commitment model with elite amateur sportsmen. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 25(3), 377-401
40. Scanlan, T. K., Russell, D. G., Magyar, M., & Scanlan, L. A. (2009). Project on elite athlete commitment (PEAK): III. An examination of the external validity across gender, and the expansion and clarification of the sport commitment model. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(6), 685-705.
41. Schmidt, S. L., Torgler, B., & Jung, V. (2017). Perceived tradeoff between education and sports career: Evidence from professional football. Applied Economics, 49(29), 2829-2850.42. Scott, C. D., & Jaffe, D. T. (1988). Survive and thrive in times of change. Training and Development Journal, 42(4), 25-27.
43. Sorkkila, M., Aunola, K., Salmela-Aro, K., Tolvanen, A., & Ryba, T. V. (2018). The co-developmental dynamic of sport and school burnout among student-athletes: The role of achievement goals. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 28(6), 1731–1742.
44. Spiker, B. K., & Lesser, E. (1995). We have met the enemy. Journal of Business StrateRv, 16(2), 17-21.
45. Stambulova, N. B. (1994). Developmental sports career investigations in Russia: a post-Perestroika analysis. The Sport Psychologist, 8(3), 221-237.
46. Stambulova, N. B., & Ryba, T. V. (2013). Athletes' careers across cultures. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
47. Stambulova, N. B., Engström, C., Franck, A., Linnér, L., & Lindahl, K. (2015). Searching for an optimal balance: Dual career experiences of Swedish adolescent athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 21(1), 4-14.
48. Steinburg, C. (1992). Taking charge of change. Training and Development, 46(3), 26-32.
49. Sullivan, M. F., & Guntzelman, J. (1991). The grieving process in cultural change. Health Care Supervisor, 10(2), 28-33.
50. Vamplew, W. (2004). Pay up and play the game. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
51. Van Rens, F. E. C. A., Ashley, R. A., & Steele, A. R. (2019). Well-being and performance in dual careers: The role of academic and athletic identities. The Sport Psychologist, 33(1), 42-51.
52. Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (1996). Psychology (4th ed.). New York, NY: Harper Collins College Publishers.
53. Waltz, C. F., & Bausell, R. B. (1981). Nursing research: Design, statistics, and computer analysis. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis.
54. Wylleman, P., & Lavallee, D. (2004). A developmental perspective on transitions faced by athletes. In M. Weiss (Ed.), Developmental sport and exercise psychology: A life span perspective (pp. 507-527). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
55. Wylleman, P., & Reints, A. (2010). A lifespan perspective on the career of talented and elite athletes: Perspectives on high-intensity sports. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 20(Suppl. 2), 88-94.
56. Zardoshtian, S., Ahmadi, B., & Azadi, A. (2012). The relation of autonomy-supportive behaviors of coaches with self-determined motivation and sport commitment of elite female players in handball league. Research in Sport Management and Motor Behavior, 2(3), 155-171. In Persian.
2. Baron-Thiene, A., & Alfermann, D. (2015). Personal characteristics as predictors for dual career dropout versus Continuation -A prospective study of adolescent athletes from German elite sport schools. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 21(1), 42-49.
3. Beck, A. T. (1988). Love is never enough. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
4. Bovey, W. H., & Hede, A. (2001). Resistance to organizational change: The role of cognitive and affective processes. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 22(8), 372-382.
5. Brown, D. J., Fletcher, D., Henry, I., Borrie, A., Emmett, J., Buzza, A., & Wombwell, S. (2015). A British university case study of the transitional experiences of student-athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 21(1), 78-90.
6. Coakley, S. C. (2006). A phenomenological exploration of the sport-career transition experiences that affect subjective well-being of former national football league players (doctoral dissertation). University of North Carolina at Greensboro, United States.
7. Coghlan, D. (1993). A person-centered approach to dealing with resistance to change. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 14(4), 10-14.
8. Corey, G. (1996). Theory and practice of counselling and psychotherapy (5th ed.). Brooks, CA: Cole Publishing Company.
9. Darling, P. (1993). Getting results: The trainer's skills. Management Development Review, 6(5), 25-29.
10. De Brandt, K., Wylleman, P., Torregrossa, M., Schipper-Van Veldhoven, N., Minelli, D., Defruyt, S., & De Knop, P. (2018). Exploring the factor structure of the Dual Career Competency Questionnaire for Athletes in European pupil- and student-athletes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1–18. doi: 10.1080/1612197x.2018.1511619.
11. Defruyt, S., Wylleman, P., Torregrossa, M., Schipper-van Veldhoven, N., Debois, N., Cecić Erpič, S., & De Brandt, K. (2019). The development and initial validation of the dual career competency questionnaire for support providers (DCCQ-SP). International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/1612197X.2019.1581827.
12. Ellis, A. & Harper, R. A. (1975). A new guide to rational living. North Hollywood, CA: Wilshire Book Company.
13. European Commission (2012). EU guidelines on dual careers of athletes: Recommended policy actions in support of dual careers in high-performance sport (Approved by the EU Expert Group "Education & Training in Sport" at its meeting in Poznań on 28 September 2012, forwarded for approval by the Council of Ministers and published on the ENGSO web site). Brussels: Sport Unit, European Commission.
14. Haerle, R. (1975). Career patterns and career contingencies of professional baseball players: an occupational analysis. In: D. W. Ball & J. W. Loy, (Eds.), Sport and the Social Order. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 461-519.
15. Halaji, M., Zardoshtian, S., & Tondnevis, F. (2011). The relationship between transformational and transactional leadership styles of coaches with the commitment of the players of the Iranian handball leagues. Research in Sport Sciences, 11(1), 27-22. In Persian.
16. Hastings, D. W., Kurth, S. B., & Meyer, J. (1989). Competitive swimming careers through the life course. Sociology of Sport Journal, 6(3), 278-284.
17. Hoseini, A., Bahrololom, H., & Hoseininia, S. R. (2015). Examination of sport commitment model among the women participating in sport activities. Journal of Sport Management, 7(2), 293-307. In Persian.
18. Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1-55.
19. Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining Sample Size for Research Activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607-610.
20. Kyle, N. (1993). Staying with the flow of change. Journal for Quality and Participation, 16(4), 34-42.
21. Lally, P., & Kerr, G. (2005). The career planning, athletic identity, and student role identity of intercollegiate student athletes. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76(3), 275-290.
22. Lavallee, D, & Wylleman, P. (2000). Career transitions in sport: International perspectives. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
23. Linnér, L., Stambulova, N. B., Lindahl, K., & Wylleman, P. (2019). Swedish university student-athletes’ dual career scenarios and competences. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/1612197X.2019.1611898.
24. Martens, M., & Cox, R. (2000). Career development in college varsity athletes. Journal of College Student Development, 41(2), 172-180.
25. Matlin, M. W. (1995). Psychology (2nd ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
26. McPherson, B. D. (1978). Former professional athletes' adjustment to retirement. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 6(8), 52-59.
27. McPherson, B. D. (1980). Retirement from professional sport: The process and problems of occupational and psychological adjustment. Sociological symposium, 30(1), 126-143.
28. Merkel, S., Schmidt, S. L., & Torgler, B. (2017). The effect of individual uncertainty on the specificity of human capital: Empirical evidence from career developments in professional soccer. Applied Economics, 49(21), 2083-2095.
29. Mirhoseini, M. A., Hadavi, S. F., & Mozafari, S. A. A. (2012). Validity and reliability of sport commitment model among athlete students. Journal of Sport Management, 15(1), 105-121. In Persian.
30. Parsamehr, M. (2013). Test of Scanlan and Simon’s sport commitment model in taekwondo. Research in Sport Management and Motor Behavior, 2(4), 1-12. In Persian.
31. Pearson, R. E., & Petitpas, A. (1990). Transitions of athletes: Developmental and preventive perspectives. Journal of counseling and Development, 69(1), 7-10.
32. Pink, M. A., Lonie, B. E., & Saunders, J. (2018). The challenges of the semi-professional footballer: A case study of the management of dual career development at a Victorian Football League (VFL) club. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 35(1), 160-170.
33. Rosenberg, E. (1980a). Social disorganization aspects of professional sports careers. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 4(4), 14-25.
34. Ryba, T. V., Stambulova, N. B., Ronkainen, N. J., Bundgaard, J., & Selanne, H. (2015). Dual career pathways of transnational athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 21(1), 125-134.
35. Salmela, J. H. (1994). Phases and transitions across sport careers. In D. Hackfort (Ed.), Psycho-Social Issues and Interventions in Elite Sports (pp. 11-28). Frankfurt, Germany: Lang.
36. Sandstedt, S., Cox, R., Martens, M., Ward, G., Webber, N., & Ivey, S. (2004). Development of the student-athlete career situation inventory (SACSI). Journal of Career Development, 31(2), 79-93.
37. Scanlan, T. K., Carpenter, P. J., Schmidt, G. W., Simons, J. P., & Keeler, B. (1993a). An introduction to the sport commitment model. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15(1), 1-15.
38. Scanlan, T. K., Carpenter, P. J., Simons, J. P., Schmidt, G. W., & Keeler, B. (1993b). The sport commitment model: Measurement development for the youth-sport domain. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15(1), 16-38.
39. Scanlan, T. K., Russell, D. G., Beals, K. P., & Scanlan, L. A. (2003). Project on elite athlete commitment (PEAK): II. A direct test and expansion of the sport commitment model with elite amateur sportsmen. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 25(3), 377-401
40. Scanlan, T. K., Russell, D. G., Magyar, M., & Scanlan, L. A. (2009). Project on elite athlete commitment (PEAK): III. An examination of the external validity across gender, and the expansion and clarification of the sport commitment model. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(6), 685-705.
41. Schmidt, S. L., Torgler, B., & Jung, V. (2017). Perceived tradeoff between education and sports career: Evidence from professional football. Applied Economics, 49(29), 2829-2850.42. Scott, C. D., & Jaffe, D. T. (1988). Survive and thrive in times of change. Training and Development Journal, 42(4), 25-27.
43. Sorkkila, M., Aunola, K., Salmela-Aro, K., Tolvanen, A., & Ryba, T. V. (2018). The co-developmental dynamic of sport and school burnout among student-athletes: The role of achievement goals. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 28(6), 1731–1742.
44. Spiker, B. K., & Lesser, E. (1995). We have met the enemy. Journal of Business StrateRv, 16(2), 17-21.
45. Stambulova, N. B. (1994). Developmental sports career investigations in Russia: a post-Perestroika analysis. The Sport Psychologist, 8(3), 221-237.
46. Stambulova, N. B., & Ryba, T. V. (2013). Athletes' careers across cultures. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
47. Stambulova, N. B., Engström, C., Franck, A., Linnér, L., & Lindahl, K. (2015). Searching for an optimal balance: Dual career experiences of Swedish adolescent athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 21(1), 4-14.
48. Steinburg, C. (1992). Taking charge of change. Training and Development, 46(3), 26-32.
49. Sullivan, M. F., & Guntzelman, J. (1991). The grieving process in cultural change. Health Care Supervisor, 10(2), 28-33.
50. Vamplew, W. (2004). Pay up and play the game. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
51. Van Rens, F. E. C. A., Ashley, R. A., & Steele, A. R. (2019). Well-being and performance in dual careers: The role of academic and athletic identities. The Sport Psychologist, 33(1), 42-51.
52. Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (1996). Psychology (4th ed.). New York, NY: Harper Collins College Publishers.
53. Waltz, C. F., & Bausell, R. B. (1981). Nursing research: Design, statistics, and computer analysis. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis.
54. Wylleman, P., & Lavallee, D. (2004). A developmental perspective on transitions faced by athletes. In M. Weiss (Ed.), Developmental sport and exercise psychology: A life span perspective (pp. 507-527). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
55. Wylleman, P., & Reints, A. (2010). A lifespan perspective on the career of talented and elite athletes: Perspectives on high-intensity sports. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 20(Suppl. 2), 88-94.
56. Zardoshtian, S., Ahmadi, B., & Azadi, A. (2012). The relation of autonomy-supportive behaviors of coaches with self-determined motivation and sport commitment of elite female players in handball league. Research in Sport Management and Motor Behavior, 2(3), 155-171. In Persian.
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