The effect of virtual reality games with and without transcranial direct current stimulation on the cognitive function of sedentary adolescent girls

Document Type : Original research

Authors
nasrin shahbazi 1
ali heirani 2
Ehsan Amiri 3
daniel gomez da silva machado 4
1 PhD Student in Motor Behavior, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
2 Assistant professor of motor behavior at Razi University, Faculty of Sport Sciences
3 Faculty of Sport Sciences, Sport physiology, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
4 Full Professor of Sports Physiology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
10.22089/spsyj.2024.15524.2432
Abstract
The present study was conducted with the aim of determining the effect of virtual reality games with and without unilateral transcranial direct current anodal stimulation on the cognitive function of sedentary adolescent girls.Therefore, 36 adolescent girls were purposefully selected based on the entry criteria. Then, equal numbers were placed in three control groups, virtual reality + anodal stimulation and virtual reality + sham stimulation. The intervention was implemented for 12 sessions (3 sessions per week). First, sham or anodal stimulation was applied simultaneously on DLPFC and M1 for 20 minutes with a current intensity of 2 mA. Then virtual reality exercises were performed for 1 hour. The control group did not receive any intervention. N-back tests, reaction time software and cognitive flexibility questionnaire were used to evaluate cognitive performance. The statistical test of the analysis Mixed ANOVA was used at the significance level of 0.05 and SPSS23 software. The results showed that the cognitive performance in the anodal stimulation group was superior to the other two groups in the post-test and retention phase (p=0.05). In fact, virtual reality with unihemispheric anodal stimulation has more and more lasting effects on the cognitive function of sedentary adolescent girls.
Keywords
transcranial direct current stimulation
working memory
sedentary adolescent girls
reaction time
virtual reality

Main Subjects

  1. Aghajani, S., Null, N., & Alizadeh Goradel, J. (2019). The effectiveness of Transcendental Direct Electric Stimulation (TDCS) on improving cognitive functions and problem solving skills of students. Journal of School Psychology, 7(4), 20-38. (In Persian).
  2. AminiMasouleh, M., Chalabianloo, G., & Abdi, R. (2021). Computer-assisted cognitive rehabilitation with and without unihemispheric concurrent dual-site a-tDCS and conventional tDCS on improving the response inhibition in patients with stroke. Shenakht Journal of Psychology and Psychiatry, 7(6), 2-27. (In Persian).
  3. AminiMasouleh, M., Chalabianloo, G., & Abdi, R. (2022). Comparison of cognitive rehabilitation efficacy based on computer-assisted cognitive rehabilitation with and without transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on improving the working memory of stroke patients. Neuropsychology, 8(1), 41-53. (In Persian).
  4. AminiMasouleh, , Ghazanfariyan Pour, S., & Beirami, M. (2019). Comparison of the effectiveness of different transcranial direct current stimulation protocols (tDCS) with cognitive exercises in improving response inhibition in normal individuals. Shenakht Journal of Psychology and Psychiatry, 6(3), 1-14. (In Persian).
  5. Andermo, S., Hallgren, M., Nguyen, T. T. D., Jonsson, S., Petersen, S., Friberg, M., & Elinder, L. S. (2020). School-related physical activity interventions and mental health among children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine-Open, 6(1), 1-27.
  6. Arkan, A., & Yaryari, F. (2014). The effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (TDCS) on the working memory in healthy people. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 2(2), 10-17. (In Persian).

 

 

  1. Bashir, S., Bamugaddam, A., Alasheikh, M., Alhassan, T., Alhaidar, S., Almutairi, A. K., & Albaiji, B. A. (2022). Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the primary motor cortex (M1) enhances motor response inhibition and visual recognition memory. Medical Science Monitor Basic Research, 28, e934180-934181.
  2. BashiriMoosavi, F., Farmanbar, R., Taghdisi, M., & AtrkarRoshan, Z. (2015). Level of physical activity among girl high school students in Tarom county and relevant factors. Iranian Journal of Health Education and Health Promotion, 3(2), 133-140. (In Persian).
  3. Baumert, A., Buchholz, N., Zinkernagel, A., Clarke, P., MacLeod, C., Osinsky, R., & Schmitt, M. (2020). Causal underpinnings of working memory and Stroop interference control: testing the effects of anodal and cathodal tDCS over the left DLPFC. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 20(1), 34-48.
  4. Benzing, V., Heinks, T., Eggenberger, N., & Schmidt, M. (2016). Acute cognitively engaging exergame-based physical activity enhances executive functions in adolescents. PloS One, 11(12), e0167501.
  5. Biddiss, E., & Irwin, J. (2010). Active video games to promote physical activity in children and youth: A systematic review. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 164(7), 664-672.
  6. Budde, H., Windisch, C., Kudielka, B. M., & Voelcker-Rehage, C. (2010). Saliva cortisol in school children after acute physical exercise. Neuroscience Letters, 483(1), 16-19.
  7. Chang, Y.K., Chu, C.-H., Wang, C.-C., Wang, Y. C., Song, T.-F., Tsai, C.-L., & Etnier, J. L. (2015). Dose–response relation between exercise duration and cognition. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 47(1), 159-165.
  8. Clark, V. P., Coffman, B. A., Mayer, A. R., Weisend, M. P., Lane, T. D., Calhoun, V. D., …, & Wassermann, E. M. (2012). TDCS guided using fMRI significantly accelerates learning to identify concealed objects. Neuroimage, 59(1), 117-128.
  9. Collange Grecco, L. A., de Almeida Carvalho Duarte, N., Mendonça, M. E., Galli, M., Fregni, F., & Oliveira, C. S. (2015). Effects of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation combined with virtual reality for improving gait in children with spastic diparetic cerebral palsy: a pilot, randomized, controlled, double-blind, clinical trial. Clinical Rehabilitation, 29(12), 1212-1223.
  10. Comeras-Chueca, C., Marin-Puyalto, J., Matute-Llorente, A., Vicente-Rodriguez, G., Casajus, J. A., & Gonzalez-Aguero, A. (2021). Effects of active video games on health-related physical fitness and motor competence in children and adolescents with overweight or obesity: systematic review and meta-analysis. JMIR Serious Games, 9(4), e29981.
  11. Cooper, S. B., Bandelow, S., Nute, M. L., Dring, K. J., Stannard, R. L., Morris, J. G., & Nevill, M. E. (2016). Sprint-based exercise and cognitive function in adolescents. Preventive Medicine Reports, 4, 155-161.
  12. Cooper, S. B., Dring, K. J., Morris, J. G., Sunderland, C., Bandelow, S., & Nevill, M. E. (2018). High intensity intermittent games-based activity and adolescents’ cognition: Moderating effect of physical fitness. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 1-14.
  13. Cui, J., Li, L., & Dong, C. (2022). The associations between specific-type sedentary behaviors and cognitive flexibility in adolescents. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 16, 910624.
  14. De Melo Cerqueira, T. M., de Moura, J. A., de Lira, J. O., Leal, J. C., D'Amelio, M., & do Santos Mendes, F. A. (2020). Cognitive and motor effects of Kinect‐based games training in people with and without Parkinson disease: A preliminary study. Physiotherapy Research International, 25(1), e1807.
  15. Dennis, P., & Vander Wal, J. S. (2010). The cognitive flexibility inventory: Instrument development and estimates of reliability and validity. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34, 241-253.

 

  1. Dumith, S. C., Gigante, D. P., Domingues, M. R., & Kohl III, H. W. (2011). Physical activity change during adolescence: a systematic review and a pooled analysis. International Journal of Epidemiology, 40(3), 685-698.
  2. Ellemberg, D., & St-Louis-Deschênes, M. (2010). The effect of acute physical exercise on cognitive function during development. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11(2), 122-126.
  3. Etemadi, M., Amiri, E., Tadibi, V., Grospretre, S., Valipour, V., & Machado, D. G. S. (2023). Anodal tDCS Over the DLPFC but not M1 increases muscle activity and improves psychophysiological responses, cognitive function, and endurance performance in normobaric hypoxia: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Neuroscience, 24(1), 25.
  4. Faal, R., & Ghassemi, F. (2017). Effects of virtual reality therapy on stroke rehabilitation in upper limbs: Systematic review and meta-analysis. The Scientific Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 6(3), 286-302. (In Persian).
  5. Farič, N., Smith, L., Hon, A., Potts, H. W., Newby, K., Steptoe, A., & Fisher, A. (2021). A virtual reality exergame to engage adolescents in physical activity: Mixed methods study describing the formative intervention development process. Journal of medical Internet Research, 23(2), e18161.
  6. Foley, L., & Maddison, R. (2010). Use of active video games to increase physical activity in children: A (virtual) reality? Pediatric Exercise Science, 22(1), 7-20.
  7. Gabana, D., Tokarchuk, L., Hannon, E., & Gunes, H. (2017). Effects of valence and arousal on working memory performance in virtual reality gaming. In 2017 Seventh International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction (ACII), pp. 36-41.
  8. Gale, C. R., Batty, G. D., Tynelius, P., Deary, I. J., & Rasmussen, F. (2010). Intelligence in early adulthood and subsequent hospitalisation and admission rates for the whole range of mental disorders: Longitudinal study of 1,049,663 men. Epidemiology, 21(1),
  9. Gallotta, M. C., Emerenziani, G. P., Franciosi, E., Meucci, M., Guidetti, L., & Baldari, C. (2015). Acute physical activity and delayed attention in primary school students. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 25(3), e331-e338.
  10. Gomez-Pinilla, F., & Hillman, C. (2013). The influence of exercise on cognitive abilities. Comprehensive Physiology, 3(1), 403-428.
  11. .Goodwill, A. M., Reynolds, J., Daly, R. M., & Kidgell, D. J. (2013). Formation of cortical plasticity in older adults following tDCS and motor training. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 5,
  12. Guleyupoglu, B., Schestatsky, P., Edwards, D., Fregni, F., & Bikson, M. (2013). Classification of methods in transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 219(2), 297-311.
  13. Hallal, P. C., Victora, C. G., Azevedo, M. R., & Wells, J. C (2006). Adolescent physical activity and health. Sports Medicine, 36(12), 1019-1030.
  14. Hirschfeld, L. A., & Gelman, S. A. (Eds.). (1994). Mapping the mind: Domain specificity in cognition and cultur Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  15. Jäger, K., Schmidt, M., Conzelmann, A., & Roebers, C. M. (2015). The effects of qualitatively different acute physical activity interventions in real-world settings on executive functions in preadolescent children. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 9, 1-9.
  16. Jalili, F., Nejati, V., Ahadi, H., & Katanforosh, S. A. (2019). Effectiveness of computerized motion-based cognitive rehabilitation on improvement of working memory of children with ADHD. Medical Science Journal of Islamic Azad Univesity-Tehran Medical Branch, 29(2), 171-180. (In Persian).
  17. Kane, M. J., Conway, A. R., Miura, T. K., & Colflesh, G. J. (2007). Working memory, attention control, and the N-back task: A question of construct validity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33(3),
  18. Karthikeyan, R., Smoot, M. R., & Mehta, R. K. (2021). Anodal tDCS augments and preserves working memory beyond time-on-task deficits. Scientific Reports, 11(1),
  19. Kim, Y. J., Ku, J., Cho, S., Kim, H. J., Cho, Y. K., Lim, T., & Kang, Y. J. (2014). Facilitation of corticospinal excitability by virtual reality exercise following anodal transcranial direct current stimulation in healthy volunteers and subacute stroke subjects. Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation, 11, 1-12.
  20. Kirchner, W. K. (1958). Age differences in short-term retention of rapidly changing information. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55(4),
  21. Kourakli, M., Altanis, I., Retalis, S., Boloudakis, M., Zbainos, D., & Antonopoulou, K. (2017). Towards the improvement of the cognitive, motoric and academic skills of students with special educational needs using Kinect learning games. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 11, 28-39.
  22. Kruger, P. E., Campher, J., & Smit, C. E. (2009). The role of visual skills and its impact on skill performance of cricket players and sport science. African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 15(4), 605-623.
  23. Layne, T., Yli-Piipari, S., & Knox, T. (2021). Physical activity break program to improve elementary students’ executive function and mathematics performance. Education, 49(5), 583-591.
  24. Lazzari, R. D., Politti, F., Santos, C. A., Dumont, A. J. L., Rezende, F. L., Grecco, L. A. C., & Oliveira, C. S. (2015). Effect of a single session of transcranial direct-current stimulation combined with virtual reality training on the balance of children with cerebral palsy: a randomized, controlled, double-blind trial. Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 27(3), 763-768.
  25. Moslemi, B., Azmodeh, M., Tabatabaei, M., & Alivandi Vafa, M (2019). The Effect of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex: a Review of its Role on Cognitive Functions. The Neuroscience Journal of Shefaye Khatam, 8(1), 129-144. (In Persian).
  26. Pergher, V., Au, J., Shalchy, M. A., Santarnecchi, E., Seitz, A., Jaeggi, S. M., & Battelli, L. (2022). The benefits of simultaneous tDCS and working memory training on transfer outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain Stimulation, 15(16), 1541-1551.
  27. Rostami, S., Kalantari, M., Shafiee, Z., & Akbarzadeh Baghban, A. (2018). Effect of virtual reality games on upper extremity function in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. The Scientific Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 7(2), 52-57. (In Persian).
  28. Sadock, B. J. (2015). Sadock's synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences (F. Rezaee, Trans) (11th). Tehran: Arjmand Publication. (In Persian).
  29. Saenz-de-Urturi, Z., & Garcia-Zapirain Soto, B. (2016). Kinect-based virtual game for the elderly that detects incorrect body postures in real time. Sensors, 16(5),
  30. Sanchez-Martinez, J., Tapia-Tapia, D., Villagra-Ortega, A., Villegas-Arriagada, J., & Monteiro-Junior, R. (2023). Effect of active video games on cognitive functions in healthy children and adolescents. Systematic review of randomized controlled studies. Journal of Movement & Health, 20(1), 1-16.
  31. Satorres, E., Meléndez, J. C., Pitarque, A., Real, E., Abella, M., & Escudero, J. (2022). Enhancing immediate memory, potential learning, and working memory with transcranial direct current stimulation in healthy older adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(19),
  32. Seidel, O., & Ragert, P. (2019). Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation of primary motor cortex on reaction time and tapping performance: A comparison between athletes and non-athletes. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13,
  33. Serrano, S. L., Ruiz-Ariza, A., De La Torre-Cruz, M., & López, E. J. M. (2021). Improving cognition in school children and adolescents through exergames. A systematic review and practical guide. South African Journal of Education, 41(1), 1-19.
  34. Shabahang, A., Abedanzadeh, R., & Ramezanzadeh, H. (2019). The effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on the working memory. Sport Psychology Studies, 9(31), 191-214. (In Persian).
  35. Šlosar, L., De Bruin, E. D., Fontes, E. B., Plevnik, M., Pisot, R., Simunic, B., & Marusic, U. (2021). Additional exergames to regular tennis training improves cognitive-motor functions of children but may temporarily affect tennis technique: A single-blind randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 12,
  36. Soltani, E., Shareh, H., Bahrainian, S. A., & Farmani, A. (2013). The mediating role of cognitive flexibility in correlation of coping styles and resilience with depression. Pajoohandeh Journal, 18(2), 88-96. (In Persian).
  37. Soyata, A. Z., Aksu, S., Woods, A. J., İşçen, P., Saçar, K. T., & Karamürsel, S (2019). Effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on decision making and cognitive flexibility in gambling disorder. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 269, 275-284.
  38. Stagg, C. J., & Nitsche, M. A. (2011). Physiological basis of transcranial direct current stimulation. The Neuroscientist, 17(1), 37-53.
  39. Staiano, A. E., & Calvert, S. L. (2011). Exergames for physical education courses: Physical, social, and cognitive benefits. Child Development Perspectives, 5(2), 93-98.
  40. Talsma, L. J., Kroese, H. A., & Slagter, H. A. (2017). Boosting cognition: Effects of multiple-session transcranial direct current stimulation on working memory. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 29(4), 755-768.
  41. Telama, R., Yang, X., Viikari, J., Välimäki, I., Wanne, O., & Raitakari, O. (2005). Physical activity from childhood to adulthood: a 21-year tracking study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(3), 267-273.
  42. Teo, F., Hoy, K. E., Daskalakis, Z. J., & Fitzgerald, P. B. (2011). Investigating the role of current strength in tDCS modulation of working memory performance in healthy controls. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2,
  43. Vaseghi, B., Zoghi, M., & Jaberzadeh, S. (2015). The effects of anodal-tDCS on corticospinal excitability enhancement and its after-effects: Conventional vs. unihemispheric concurrent dual-site stimulation. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9,
  44. Verhoeven, K., Abeele, V. V., Gers, B., & Seghers, J. (2015). Energy expenditure during Xbox Kinect play in early adolescents: The relationship with player mode and game enjoyment. Games for Health Journal, 4(6), 444-451.
  45. Viana, R. T., Laurentino, G. E. C., Souza, R. J. P., Fonseca, J. B., Silva Filho, E. M., Dias, S. N., ..., & Monte-Silva, K. K. (2014). Effects of the addition of transcranial direct current stimulation to virtual reality therapy after stroke: A pilot randomized controlled trial. NeuroRehabilitation, 34(3), 437-446.
  46. Westwood, S. J., & Romani, C. (2018). Null effects on working memory and verbal fluency tasks when applying anodal tDCS to the inferior frontal gyrus of healthy participants. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 12,
  47. Wing, V. C., Barr, M. S., Wass, C. E., Lipsman, N., Lozano, A. M., Daskalakis, Z. J., & George, T. P. (2013). Brain stimulation methods to treat tobacco addiction. Brain Stimulation, 6(3), 221-230.
  48. Zhidong, C., Wang, X., Yin, J., Song, D., & Chen, Z. (2021). Effects of physical exercise on working memory in older adults: A systematic and meta-analytic review. European Review of Aging and Physical Activity, 18(1), 1-15.
  49. Nejati, V. (2013). Correlation of risky decision making with executive function of brain in adolescences. Journal of Research in Behavioural Sciences, 11(4), 270-278.

 

 

 

Sport Psychology Studies
Volume 12, Issue 46
January 2023
Pages 107-128

  • Receive Date 28 August 2023
  • Revise Date 31 December 2023
  • Accept Date 30 January 2024