Effect of Sports Participation Type on Hot and Cold Executive Functions: Emphasis on the Perceptual Demands of Environment

Document Type : Original research

Authors

1 Master of Sport Science, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran

2 Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Yazd University,

3 Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran.

Abstract

Background and Purpose
The studies conducted in recent years suggest that executive functions are divided into two distinct categories: cold and hot, each of which may operate differently depending on the context (1,2). Given the crucial role of executive functions in daily activities (3), deficits in either hot or cold functions can lead to psychological challenges and various developmental consequences (4). Research indicates that long-term engagement in physical activities and sports has a positive impact on executive functions. However, the relationship between the cognitive demands of sports and the key dimensions of executive functions remains underexplored. Considering the benefits of exercise and physical activity on both the structural and functional aspects of the brain, as well as cognitive functions, and acknowledging the contradictions in the results of previous studies, the purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of different types of sports participations (closed skill vs. open skill exercises) on cold and hot executive functions. The aim was to enhance knowledge and provide a more comprehensive understanding of how cognitive load, processing demands, and the complexity of sports influence executive functions.
 
Materials and Methods
The current research was causal-comparative and applied in terms of purpose. The statistical sample consisted of 166 teenagers and young adults, aged 18 to 30, selected through a targeted and accessible sampling method. Based on the type of sports participation, the participants were divided into three groups: 59 individuals with experience in practicing open skill exercises (OSE), 56 with experience in practicing closed skill exercises (CSE), and 51 inactive individuals. Each participant was individually evaluated using the Working Memory (2-back) task and the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT).
 
Data Collection Tool

N-back working memory test

The 2-back test was used to measure cold executive functions. In this test, participants must press the corresponding key if the presented stimulus matches the one shown two steps earlier. The 2-back test is one of the most widely used tools for assessing working memory and has been frequently employed in both clinical and experimental studies across various age groups.

Iowa Gambling Task (IGT)

The IGT test was used to measure hot executive functions. It has been widely used to evaluate decision-making in situations involving risk, danger, and ambiguity across different populations. The IGT is a computer-based card game consisting of 100 trials designed to assess judgment and decision-making. In this test, participants are instructed
to select one of four available cards on each trial in order to collect as much money as possible. Each choice can either be beneficial or harmful. The test score is calculated by subtracting the sum of selections from the first pair of cards from the sum of selections from the second pair.
The research data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).
 
Findings
Before performing the analysis, we checked the normality of the distribution of the variables using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and assessed the homogeneity of variances using Levene's test. The results of these tests indicated that the assumptions were not violated (p ≥ 0.05). The results of the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicate a significant difference in the number of correct answers on the N-back test between the OSE, CSE, and inactive groups. Specifically, the OSE and CSE groups performed better than the inactive group (P= 0.02). However, no significant difference was found between the OSE, CSE, and inactive groups with regard to the total score on the IGT test (p = 0.79). Given the significant differences in the number of correct answers on the N-back test among the groups, Fisher's Least Significant Difference (LSD) test was used to further investigate the differences between groups. The results revealed a significant difference between the OSE and inactive groups (p = 0.01) and between the CSE and inactive groups (p = 0.02). However, no significant difference was observed between the OSE and CSE groups (p = 0.82).
 
Discussion and Conclusion
The results showed that the OSE and CSE groups scored higher in the N-back test (cold executive functions) than the inactive group. However, no significant difference was found between the OSE and CSE groups. Researchers suggest that different types of exercise, with varying cognitive demands, have specific effects on neuro-cognitive performance. These effects are likely due to differences in the secretion of certain biomarkers in the neurochemical system, as well as variations in brain tissue volume and activation patterns influenced by different exercise types (5, 6).
The results of the IGT test (hot executive functions) showed no significant difference between the scores of the OSE, CSE, and inactive groups. These findings support the 'limited transfer' hypothesis (7), which suggests that the development of hot executive functions occurs at a slower rate. Researchers argue that the cognitive demands of different types of sports results in a small effect size when comparing OSE and CSE groups. Additionally, some tests of executive functions may be less sensitive to the effects of physical activity than others (8).
Ethical Considerations: In addition to completing the consent form and adhering to ethical guidelines, the participants were informed that their data would be kept confidential. FundingThe present study received no financial support from any institution or organization.
Authors' contributions
First author: Data collection and authorship of the introduction; Second author: conceptualization and presentation of the idea, authorship of the introduction, discussion and methodology; Third author: data analysis. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the article. Additionally, all authors are responsible for the accuracy and integrity of the content in the final manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declared no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
We sincerely thank and appreciate all the respected students who cooperated in the present research.
 

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

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Sport Psychology Studies
Volume 13, Issue 48
July 2024
Pages 36-54

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History

  • Receive Date: 09 January 2023
  • Revise Date: 10 February 2024
  • Accept Date: 19 February 2024

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