Sport Psychology Studies

Sport Psychology Studies

Relationship between Exposure to Violence and Avoidant Attachment with Marital Adjustment in Female Athletes: The Mediating Role of Physical Activity and Intimate Partner Violence

Document Type : Original research

Authors
Shahrzad Rigi 1
Sirus Sharifi 2
Vahideh Babakhani 2
Fatemeh Alijani 2
1 Ph.D Student, Department of Counseling, AB. C, Islamic Azad University, Abhar, Iran.
2 Department of Counseling, AB. C, Islamic Azad University, Abhar, Iran.
10.22089/spsyj.2026.16414.2464
Abstract
Objective: The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between exposure to violence and avoidant attachment with adjustment in female athletes, and to examine the mediating role of physical activity and intimate partner violence.

Materials and Methods: The statistical population included all female athletes in Karaj city in 2022. Based on Cramer's formula, 450 individuals were selected through non-random purposive sampling. The data collection tools included the Beck Physical Activity Questionnaire, the Spanier et al. Adjustment Questionnaire, the Godbout et al. Exposure to Violence Questionnaire, the Straus Violence Questionnaire, and the Hazan and Shaver Avoidant Attachment Questionnaire.

Results: The results showed that the direct paths from primary exposure to violence, avoidant attachment, and intimate partner violence to adjustment were negative and significant. Additionally, physical activity had a direct, positive, and significant effect on adjustment. The indirect effects of both predictor variables (primary exposure to violence and avoidant attachment) through intimate partner violence on adjustment were evaluated as significant. Furthermore, physical activity played a significant mediating role in the relationship between primary exposure to violence and avoidant attachment with adjustment. The chain paths (exposure to violence/avoidant attachment → physical activity → intimate partner violence → adjustment) were also confirmed, indicating the dual effect of physical activity in promoting adjustment.

Conclusion: Based on the findings, the design and implementation of regular exercise programs for women exposed to violence or those with an insecure attachment style can be considered as an effective and low-cost intervention in family counseling centers and social work clinics.
Keywords
Intimate Partner Violence
Avoidant Attachment
Marital Adjustment
Female Athletes
Physical Activity
Subjects
1.       Alexander, P. C. (2015). Intergenerational Cycles of Trauma and Violence: An Attachment and Family Systems Perspective. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company. https://doi.org/10.1097/nmd.0000000000000386
2.       Asgarizadeh, A. , Pakdaman, S. , Hunjani, M. and Ghanbari, S. (2000). Iranian Adaptation of the Revised Adult Attachment Scale: Validity and Reliability in the General Population. Applied Psychology, 17(2), 167-191.  https://doi.org/10.48308/apsy.2023.230293.1443      
3.       Babaie E. Prediction of‌ ‌marital conflicts of women invove in domestic violence based on sexual ‎schemas, sexual function and sexual satisfaction‎. IJPN 2018; 6 (5) :16-24. In Persian
4.       Bender, A., & Ingram, R. (2018). Connecting attachment style to resilience: Contributions of self-care and self-efficacy. Personality and individual differences, 130, 18-20.‏ https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.paid.2018.03.038
5.       Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Clinical applications of attachment theory. Routledge.
6.       Ching, K. H., & Tak, L. M. (2017). The structural model in parenting style, attachment style, self-regulation and self-esteem for smartphone addiction. IAFOR Journal of Psychology & the Behavioral Sciences, 3(1), 85-103.‏ https://doi.org/10.22492/ijpbs.3.1.06
7.       Godbout, N., Daspe, M. È., Lussier, Y., Sabourin, S., Dutton, D., & Hébert, M. (2017). Early exposure to violence, relationship violence, and relationship satisfaction in adolescents and emerging adults: The role of romantic attachment. Psychological trauma: Theory, research, practice, and policy, 9(2), 127.‏ https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000136
8.       Godbout, N., Dutton, D. G., Lussier, Y., & Sabourin, S. (2009). Early exposure to violence, domestic violence, attachment representations, and marital adjustment. Personal Relationships,  16 (3), 365–384. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2009.01228.x
9.       Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of personality and social psychology, 52(3), 511-23. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511
10.   Hosseini Hosseinabad, S. F., Ghobari Bonab, B., Mashayekh, M., & Farrokhi, N. (2018). Investigating the mediating role of insecure attachment styles in the relationship between childhood violence and marital adjustment in women. Paper presented at the 18th Conference of the Iranian Counseling Association with the title of Counseling and Health, Tehran, Iran. In Persian
11.   Kaplan Serin, E., Duman, M., & Yilmaz, S. (2020). Sexual life quality and marital adjustment in women with and without diabetes. Sexuality and Disability, 38(4), 625-635.‏ https://doi.org/10.1007/s11195-020-09663-y
12.   Karkare, A., & Peter, N. (2019). A comparative study of marital adjustment in females with relation to participation in sports. International Journal of Physiology, Nutrition and Physical Education, 4(2), 530-531. 
13.   Kim, E., & Koh, E. (2018). Avoidant attachment and smartphone addiction in college students: The mediating effects of anxiety and self-esteem. Computers in Human Behavior, 84, 264-271.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.02.037
14.   Li, Q., Gong, Y., Li, J., Wang, X., Jiang, W., & Zhao, W. (2023). Does early adversity predict aggression among Chinese male violent juvenile offenders? The mediating role of life history strategy and the moderating role of meaning in life. BMC psychology, 11(1), 382. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01407-9
15.   Meinck, F., Lu, M., Suresh, D., Cetin, M., Neelakantan, L., Hemady, C. L., Franchino-Olsen, H., Woollett, N., Melendez-Torres, G. J., Gonzalez, A., & Christofides, N. (2025). What are the mechanisms underpinning intergenerational transmission of violence perpetration? A realist review. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 1–18. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380251361468
16.   Milner, A. N., & Baker, E. H. (2017). Athletic participation and intimate partner violence victimization: Investigating sport involvement, self-esteem, and abuse patterns for women and men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence,  32 (2), 268-289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515585543   
17.   Mirzakhani, M. , Jafari, A. , Amiri Majd, M. and Bazzazian, S. (2024). Predicting Marital Adjustment through Attachment Styles with the Mediating Role of Communication Beliefs: The Path Analysis Pattern. Journal of Applied Psychological Research. https://doi.org/10.22059/japr.2024.372636.644877  
18.   Moghadas sharif,P. , Abdekhodaie, Z. Panaghi,L. (2024). The Moderating Role of Self Silencing in Relationship Between Attachment and Marital Satisfaction in Married People. Clinical Psychology and Personality, 22(2), 279-294. https://doi.org/10.22070/cpap.2024.18649.1476   
19.   Mousavi, S., GharehBaghi, F., Mirzaei Tavakoli, S.M. (2022). The Relationship of Differentiation and Chronic Anxiety in the Family Emotional System with Family Health. Quarterly Scientific Research Journal of Islamic Studies in the Field of Health, 6(1), 15-26.
20.   Nebbitt, V., Lombe, M., Pitzer, K. A., Foell, A., Enelamah, N., Chu, Y., ... & Gaylord-Harden, N. (2021). Exposure to violence and posttraumatic stress among youth in public housing: do community, family, and peers matter?. Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities, 8, 264-274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00780-0
21.   Salari, S. (2021). Family Violence Across the Life Course: Research, Policy and Prevention (3rd ed.). Kendall Hunt Publishing.
22.   Smith‑Slep, A. M., Heyman, R. E., Foran, H. M., & Snarr, J. D. (2024). Second‑generation models of intimate partner violence: A systematic review and meta‑analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 25 (3), 12-28. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21565
23.   Snani, H., Snani, H., Tannoubi, A., Chortane, O. G., & Azaiez, F. (2024). Balance and deep connections: the impact of physical activity on body and sexual self-esteem, psychological distress, and marital satisfaction among adults. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 6,1343951. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2024.1343951  
24.   Sokar, S., Greenbaum, C. W., & Haj-Yahia, M. M. (2023). Exposure to parental violence during childhood and later psychological distress among Arab adults in Israel: the role of gender and sense of coherence. Journal of interpersonal violence, 38(1-2), 588-612. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605221082741
25.   Spanier, G. B., Lewis, R. A., & Cole, C. L. (1976). Marital adjustment over the family life cycle: The issue of curvilinearity. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 263-275.‏ https://doi.org/10.2307/350960
26.   Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S. U. E., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The revised conflict tactics scales (CTS2) development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of family issues, 17(3), 283-316.‏ https://doi.org/10.1177/019251396017003001
27.   Thargay, T., & Giri, V. N. (2024). Examining the Mediating Role of Attachment Styles Between Perceived Partner Responsiveness and Marital Satisfaction. Marriage & Family Review, 60(8), 573-596. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2024.2411516
28.   Törnblom, K. Y., & Kazemi, A. (Eds.). (2023). Social Behavior as Resource Exchange: Explorations into the Societal Structures of the Mind. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190066994.001.0001
29.   Trombetta, T., Giordano, M., Giordano, F., Salerno, L., Garbetta, G., Tosto, V., & Tani, F. (2024). The mediating role of mentalization in the relationship between psychological violence and marital quality. Frontiers in Psychology,  15, 1345678.
30.   Turemen, M., & Demirci, H. (2021). The Effect of Father–Infant Skin to Skin Contact on Father’s Attachment and in Marital Adjustment: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Psychological research, 9(2), 127.‏
31.   Ünal, Ö., & Akgün, S. (2022). Conflict resolution styles as predictors of marital adjustment and marital satisfaction: An actor–partner interdependence model. Journal of Family Studies, 28(3), 898-913. https://doi.org/10.1080/13229400.2020.1766542
Sport Psychology Studies
Volume 15, Issue 56
Spring 2026
Pages 35-59

  • Receive Date 24 August 2024
  • Revise Date 23 September 2025
  • Accept Date 23 October 2025