Document Type : Original research study
Authors
1 Assistant Professor of Motor Behavior, Kharazmi University
2 M. Sc. of Sport Biomechanic, Kharazmi University
3 Teacher, Ministry of Education and Pedagogy, Chaharmahal va Bakhtiari
Abstract
The aim of present study was to compare the mental skills of elite male youth and adult in Wushu and Kickboxing. Subjects included of 20 youth kickbox, 20 adult kickbox, 20 youth Wushu and 20 adult wushu players. Results showed psychosomatic skills and stress reaction of adult wushu players were better than others. Also, cognitive skills and concentration of adult kickbox players were better than others (P<0.05). The results of this study showed that in comparing the mental skills of elite martial athletes, age category interact with the type of sport and this difference is more significant in psychosomatic and cognitive skills. These results will help coaches and athletes to improve their competitive performance and consolidate the use of mental skills they need for each competition in different martial arts.
Keywords
1. Abbott, A., & Collins, D. (2004). Eliminating the dichotomy between theory and practice in talent identification and development: considering the role of psychology. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22, 395-408.
2. Artioli, G. G., Gualano, B., Franchini, E., Batista, R. N., Polacow, V. O., & Lancha, A. H. (2008). Physiological, performance, and nutritional profile of the Brazilian Olympic wushu(kung-fu) team. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 9, 240-2.
3. Bosscher, V. D., Knop, P. D., Bottenburg, M. V. & Shibli, S. A. (2006). Conceptual framework for analyzing sports policy factors leading to international sporting success. European Sport Management Quarterly, 6, 185-215.
4. Brutsaert, T. D., & Parra, E. J. (2006). What makes a champion? Explaning variation in human athletic performance. Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology, 151, 109-23.
5. Callister, R., Staron, R. S., Fleck, S. J., Tesch, P., & Dudley, G. A. (1991). Physiological characteristics of elite judo athletes. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 12, 196-203.
6. Chapman, C., Lane, A. M., Brierley, J. H., & Terry, P. C. (1997). Anxiety, self-confidence and performance in Tae Kwon-do. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 85, 1275-8.
7. Corrado, D., Murgia, M., & Freda, A. (2014). Attentional focus and mental skills in senior and junior professional Rugby union players. Sport Sciences for Health, 10, 79-83.
8. Cox, R. H., & Liu, Z. (1993). Psychological skills: A cross cultural investigation. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24, 326-34.
9. Devonport, T. J. (2006). Perception of the contribution of psychology to success in elite kickboxing. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 1, 99-107.
10. Di Corrado, D., Murgia, M., & Freda, A. (2014). Attentional focus and mental skills in senior and junior professional Rugby union players. Sport Science Health, 10, 79-83.
11. Durand-Bush, N., & Salmela, J. H. (2002). The development and maintenance of expert athletic performance: Perceptions of World and Olympic Champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 154-71.
12. Durand-Bush, N., Salmela, J. H., & Green-Demers, I. (2001). The ottawa mental skills assessment tool (omsat-3). The Sport Psychologist, 15, 1-19.
13. Engebretsen, L., Steffen, K., & Bahr, R. (2010). The international Olympic committee consensus statement on age determination in high-level young athletes. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 44, 476-84.
14. Farokhi, A., Kashani, V., & Motesharrei, E. (2011). Comparison mental toughness of contact and non-contact female and male athletes at different skill levels. Journal of motor behavior and sport psychology, 8, 71-86. (In Persian).
15. Ferrari, M. (1999). Influence of expertise on the intentional transfer of motor skill. Journal of Motor Behavior, 31, 79-85.
16. Franchini, E., Nunes, A.V., & Moraes, J. M. (2007). Physiological fitness and anthropometrical profile of the Brazilian male judo team. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 26, 59-67.
17. Fletcher, D., & Hanton, S. (2001). The relationship between psychological skill usage and competitive anxiety responses. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2, 89-101.
18. Gould, D., Dieffenbach, K., & Moffett, A. (2002). Psychological characteristics and their development in Olympic champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 172-204.
19. Heck, A. L., Barroso, C. S., Callie, M. E., & Bray, M. S. (2004). Gene-nutrition interaction in human performance and exercise response. Nutrition, 20, 598-602.
20. Holland, M. J. G., Woodcock, C., Cumming, J., & Duda J. L. (2010). Important mental qualities and employed mental techniques: the perspective of young elite team sport athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychoogy, 4, 19–38.
21. Horswill, C. A., Scott, J. R., & Galea, P. (1989). Comparison of maximum aerobic power, maximum anaerobic power, and skinfold thickness of elite and nonelite junior wrestlers. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 10, 165-8.
22. King, L. A., & Williams, T.A. (1997). Goal orientation and performance in martial arts. Journal of Sport Behavior, 20, 397-411.
23. Kuan, G., & Roy, J. (2007). Goal profiles, mental toughness and its influence on performance outcomes among wushu athletes. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 6, 28-33.
24. Krane, V., & Williams, J. M. (2006). Psychological characteristics of peak performance. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (pp. 207-27). New York: McGraw Hill.
25. Krupalija, E., Blazevic, S., & Torakovic, A. (2011). The influence of the morphological characteristics on the efficiency of the technical elements performance in kickboxing disciplines full contact and low kick in real fights. Acta Kinesiologica, 1, 43-6.
26. Landers, D. M., & Boutcher, S. H. (1998). Arousal-performance relationships. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (pp. 197-218). Mayfield: Mountainview.
27. Little, N. G. (1991). Physical performance attributes of junior and senior women, juvenile, junior, and senior men judokas. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 31, 510-20.
28. Mallett, C. J., & Hanrahan, S. J. (2004). Elite athletes: Why does the “fire” burn so brightly? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 5, 183-200.
29. Maynard, I. W., & Howe, B. L. (1989). Attentional styles in Rugby players. Perceptual Motor Skills, 69, 283–9.
30. McCarthy, P., Jones, M., Harwood, C., & Olivier, O. (2010). What do young athletes implicitly understand about psychological skills? Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 4, 158-72.
31. Mellalieu, S. D., & Hanton, S. (2009). Advances in applied sport psychology. London: Routledge.
32. Miah, A., & Rich, E. (2006). Genetic tests for ability? Talent identification and the value of an open future. Sport Education and Society, 11, 259-73.
33. Mirzaei, B., Rahmani nia, F., & Brader, F. (1998). Comparision of mental skill profile of youth and adult national teams of wresteling. Olympic. 10, 25-50. (In Persian).
34. Mohamed, H., Vaeyens, R., Matthys, S., Multael, M., Lefevre, J., Lenoir, M., & Philippaerts, R. (2009). Anthropometric and performance measures for the development of a talent detection and identification model in youth handball. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27, 257-66.
35. VaezMousavi, M. (2000). Validating OMSAT-3 questionnaire. Research in sport Science 1, 31-49. (In Persian).
36. Najah, A., & Benrejeb, R. (2016). Psychological characteristics of male youth soccer players: Specificity of mental attributes according to age categories. Advances in Physical Education, 6, 19-26.
37. Nicholls, A. R., Polman, R. C. J., Levy, A. R., & Backhouse, S. H. (2009). Mental toughness in sport: Achievement level, gender, age, experience, and sport type differences. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 73-5.
38. Nideffer, R. M. (1977). Comparison of self-report and performance measures of attention: A second look. Perceptual Motor Skills, 45, 1291–4.
39. Nikolaidis, P. T., Fragkiadiakis, G., Papadopoulos, V. E., & Karydis, N. V. (2011). Differences in force velocity characteristics of upper and lower limbs of male kickboxers. Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity, 3, 147-53.
40. Orlick, T. (1996). The wheel of excellence. Journal of Performance Education, 1, 3-18.
41. Paul, J., McCarthy, M. S. A., & Marc, V. J. (2013). Emotions, cognitive interference, and concentration disruption in youth sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 31, 505-15.
42. Rebato, E., Jelenkovic, A., & Salces, I. (2007). Heritability of the somatotype components in Biscay families. Journal of Comparative Human Biology, 58, 199-210.
43. Salmela, J. H., Monfared, S. S., Mosayebi, F., & Durand-Bush, N. (2009). Mental skill profiles and expertise levels of elite Iranian athletes. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 40, 361-73.
44. Sasanimoghadam, S., & Bahrololom, H. (2011). The relation ship between emotional intelligence and psychological skills Shahrood University student at hletes. Journal of Sport Management and Conduct Research in Motion, 1, 27-39.
45. Sotoodeh, M. S., Talebi, R., Hemayattalab, R., & Arabameri, E. (2012). Comparison of selected mental skills between elite and non-elite male and female Taekwondo athletes. World Journal of Sport Sciences, 6, 32-8. (In Persian).
46. Sharrat, M. T., Taylor, A.W., & Song, T. M. (1989). A physiological profile of elite Canadian freestyle wrestlers. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 11, 100-5.
47. Sheard, M., Golby, T., & Wersch, A. V. (2009). Progress toward construct validation of the sports mental toughness questionnaire. European Journal of Psychological Assessmet, 25, 186-93.
48. Sotoodeh, M. S., Talebi, R., Hemayattalab, R., & Arabameri, E. (2012). Comparison of selected mental skills between elite and nonelite male and female taekwondo athletes. World Journal of Sport Sciences, 6, 32-8.
49. Taher, A. V., & Shahbazi, M. (2013). Functional capacities and mental skills necessary for expertise in soccer. Iranian Journal of Health and Physical Activity, 4, 44-50.
50. Tassiopoulos, I., & Nikolaidis, P. T. (2013). Acute effect of official kickboxing game on handgrip muscle strength. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 13, 266-9.
51. Taylor, A.W., & Brassard, L. (1981). A physiological profile of the Canadian judo team. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 21, 160-4.
52. Toskovic, N. N., Blessing, D., & Williford, H. N. (2004). Physiologic profile of recreational male and female novice and experienced tae kwon do practitioners. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 44, 164-72.
53. Vaeyens, R., Gullich, A., Warr, C. R., & Philippaerts, R. (2009). Talent identification and promotion programmes of Olympic athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27, 1367-80.
54. VaezMousavi, M., & Samandar, G. H. (2000). Norms of mental skills in elite male of six sports. Harekat, 9, 61-72. (In Persian).
55. Vealey R. S. (2007). Mental skills training in sport. In G. Tenenbaum & R. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (3rd ed) (pp. 287-309). New York: Wiley.
56. Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. Champaign: Human Kinetics Publishers.
57. Weinberg, R. S., Seabourne, T. G., & Jackson, A. (1981). Effects of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal, relaxation, and imagery on karate performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3, 228-38.
58. Weiss, M. R., & Bredemeier, B. J. (1983). Developmental sport psychology: A theoretical perspective for studying children in sport. Journal
of Sport Psychology, 5, 216–30.
59. Williams, A. M., & Elliott, D. (1999). Anxiety, expertise, and visual search strategy in karate. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 21, 362-75.
60. ww.iranwushufed.ir
61. Woodcock, C., Holland, J. G., Cumming, J., & Duda, J. L. (2011). Psychological qualities of elite adolescent Rugby players: Parents, coaches, and sport administration staff perceptions and supporting roles. The Sport Psychologist, 25, 411–43.
62. Zabukovec, R., & Tiidus, P. M. (1995). Physiological and anthropometric profile of elite kickboxers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 9, 240-2.
2. Artioli, G. G., Gualano, B., Franchini, E., Batista, R. N., Polacow, V. O., & Lancha, A. H. (2008). Physiological, performance, and nutritional profile of the Brazilian Olympic wushu(kung-fu) team. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 9, 240-2.
3. Bosscher, V. D., Knop, P. D., Bottenburg, M. V. & Shibli, S. A. (2006). Conceptual framework for analyzing sports policy factors leading to international sporting success. European Sport Management Quarterly, 6, 185-215.
4. Brutsaert, T. D., & Parra, E. J. (2006). What makes a champion? Explaning variation in human athletic performance. Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology, 151, 109-23.
5. Callister, R., Staron, R. S., Fleck, S. J., Tesch, P., & Dudley, G. A. (1991). Physiological characteristics of elite judo athletes. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 12, 196-203.
6. Chapman, C., Lane, A. M., Brierley, J. H., & Terry, P. C. (1997). Anxiety, self-confidence and performance in Tae Kwon-do. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 85, 1275-8.
7. Corrado, D., Murgia, M., & Freda, A. (2014). Attentional focus and mental skills in senior and junior professional Rugby union players. Sport Sciences for Health, 10, 79-83.
8. Cox, R. H., & Liu, Z. (1993). Psychological skills: A cross cultural investigation. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24, 326-34.
9. Devonport, T. J. (2006). Perception of the contribution of psychology to success in elite kickboxing. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 1, 99-107.
10. Di Corrado, D., Murgia, M., & Freda, A. (2014). Attentional focus and mental skills in senior and junior professional Rugby union players. Sport Science Health, 10, 79-83.
11. Durand-Bush, N., & Salmela, J. H. (2002). The development and maintenance of expert athletic performance: Perceptions of World and Olympic Champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 154-71.
12. Durand-Bush, N., Salmela, J. H., & Green-Demers, I. (2001). The ottawa mental skills assessment tool (omsat-3). The Sport Psychologist, 15, 1-19.
13. Engebretsen, L., Steffen, K., & Bahr, R. (2010). The international Olympic committee consensus statement on age determination in high-level young athletes. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 44, 476-84.
14. Farokhi, A., Kashani, V., & Motesharrei, E. (2011). Comparison mental toughness of contact and non-contact female and male athletes at different skill levels. Journal of motor behavior and sport psychology, 8, 71-86. (In Persian).
15. Ferrari, M. (1999). Influence of expertise on the intentional transfer of motor skill. Journal of Motor Behavior, 31, 79-85.
16. Franchini, E., Nunes, A.V., & Moraes, J. M. (2007). Physiological fitness and anthropometrical profile of the Brazilian male judo team. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 26, 59-67.
17. Fletcher, D., & Hanton, S. (2001). The relationship between psychological skill usage and competitive anxiety responses. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2, 89-101.
18. Gould, D., Dieffenbach, K., & Moffett, A. (2002). Psychological characteristics and their development in Olympic champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 172-204.
19. Heck, A. L., Barroso, C. S., Callie, M. E., & Bray, M. S. (2004). Gene-nutrition interaction in human performance and exercise response. Nutrition, 20, 598-602.
20. Holland, M. J. G., Woodcock, C., Cumming, J., & Duda J. L. (2010). Important mental qualities and employed mental techniques: the perspective of young elite team sport athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychoogy, 4, 19–38.
21. Horswill, C. A., Scott, J. R., & Galea, P. (1989). Comparison of maximum aerobic power, maximum anaerobic power, and skinfold thickness of elite and nonelite junior wrestlers. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 10, 165-8.
22. King, L. A., & Williams, T.A. (1997). Goal orientation and performance in martial arts. Journal of Sport Behavior, 20, 397-411.
23. Kuan, G., & Roy, J. (2007). Goal profiles, mental toughness and its influence on performance outcomes among wushu athletes. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 6, 28-33.
24. Krane, V., & Williams, J. M. (2006). Psychological characteristics of peak performance. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (pp. 207-27). New York: McGraw Hill.
25. Krupalija, E., Blazevic, S., & Torakovic, A. (2011). The influence of the morphological characteristics on the efficiency of the technical elements performance in kickboxing disciplines full contact and low kick in real fights. Acta Kinesiologica, 1, 43-6.
26. Landers, D. M., & Boutcher, S. H. (1998). Arousal-performance relationships. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (pp. 197-218). Mayfield: Mountainview.
27. Little, N. G. (1991). Physical performance attributes of junior and senior women, juvenile, junior, and senior men judokas. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 31, 510-20.
28. Mallett, C. J., & Hanrahan, S. J. (2004). Elite athletes: Why does the “fire” burn so brightly? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 5, 183-200.
29. Maynard, I. W., & Howe, B. L. (1989). Attentional styles in Rugby players. Perceptual Motor Skills, 69, 283–9.
30. McCarthy, P., Jones, M., Harwood, C., & Olivier, O. (2010). What do young athletes implicitly understand about psychological skills? Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 4, 158-72.
31. Mellalieu, S. D., & Hanton, S. (2009). Advances in applied sport psychology. London: Routledge.
32. Miah, A., & Rich, E. (2006). Genetic tests for ability? Talent identification and the value of an open future. Sport Education and Society, 11, 259-73.
33. Mirzaei, B., Rahmani nia, F., & Brader, F. (1998). Comparision of mental skill profile of youth and adult national teams of wresteling. Olympic. 10, 25-50. (In Persian).
34. Mohamed, H., Vaeyens, R., Matthys, S., Multael, M., Lefevre, J., Lenoir, M., & Philippaerts, R. (2009). Anthropometric and performance measures for the development of a talent detection and identification model in youth handball. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27, 257-66.
35. VaezMousavi, M. (2000). Validating OMSAT-3 questionnaire. Research in sport Science 1, 31-49. (In Persian).
36. Najah, A., & Benrejeb, R. (2016). Psychological characteristics of male youth soccer players: Specificity of mental attributes according to age categories. Advances in Physical Education, 6, 19-26.
37. Nicholls, A. R., Polman, R. C. J., Levy, A. R., & Backhouse, S. H. (2009). Mental toughness in sport: Achievement level, gender, age, experience, and sport type differences. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 73-5.
38. Nideffer, R. M. (1977). Comparison of self-report and performance measures of attention: A second look. Perceptual Motor Skills, 45, 1291–4.
39. Nikolaidis, P. T., Fragkiadiakis, G., Papadopoulos, V. E., & Karydis, N. V. (2011). Differences in force velocity characteristics of upper and lower limbs of male kickboxers. Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity, 3, 147-53.
40. Orlick, T. (1996). The wheel of excellence. Journal of Performance Education, 1, 3-18.
41. Paul, J., McCarthy, M. S. A., & Marc, V. J. (2013). Emotions, cognitive interference, and concentration disruption in youth sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 31, 505-15.
42. Rebato, E., Jelenkovic, A., & Salces, I. (2007). Heritability of the somatotype components in Biscay families. Journal of Comparative Human Biology, 58, 199-210.
43. Salmela, J. H., Monfared, S. S., Mosayebi, F., & Durand-Bush, N. (2009). Mental skill profiles and expertise levels of elite Iranian athletes. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 40, 361-73.
44. Sasanimoghadam, S., & Bahrololom, H. (2011). The relation ship between emotional intelligence and psychological skills Shahrood University student at hletes. Journal of Sport Management and Conduct Research in Motion, 1, 27-39.
45. Sotoodeh, M. S., Talebi, R., Hemayattalab, R., & Arabameri, E. (2012). Comparison of selected mental skills between elite and non-elite male and female Taekwondo athletes. World Journal of Sport Sciences, 6, 32-8. (In Persian).
46. Sharrat, M. T., Taylor, A.W., & Song, T. M. (1989). A physiological profile of elite Canadian freestyle wrestlers. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 11, 100-5.
47. Sheard, M., Golby, T., & Wersch, A. V. (2009). Progress toward construct validation of the sports mental toughness questionnaire. European Journal of Psychological Assessmet, 25, 186-93.
48. Sotoodeh, M. S., Talebi, R., Hemayattalab, R., & Arabameri, E. (2012). Comparison of selected mental skills between elite and nonelite male and female taekwondo athletes. World Journal of Sport Sciences, 6, 32-8.
49. Taher, A. V., & Shahbazi, M. (2013). Functional capacities and mental skills necessary for expertise in soccer. Iranian Journal of Health and Physical Activity, 4, 44-50.
50. Tassiopoulos, I., & Nikolaidis, P. T. (2013). Acute effect of official kickboxing game on handgrip muscle strength. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 13, 266-9.
51. Taylor, A.W., & Brassard, L. (1981). A physiological profile of the Canadian judo team. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 21, 160-4.
52. Toskovic, N. N., Blessing, D., & Williford, H. N. (2004). Physiologic profile of recreational male and female novice and experienced tae kwon do practitioners. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 44, 164-72.
53. Vaeyens, R., Gullich, A., Warr, C. R., & Philippaerts, R. (2009). Talent identification and promotion programmes of Olympic athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27, 1367-80.
54. VaezMousavi, M., & Samandar, G. H. (2000). Norms of mental skills in elite male of six sports. Harekat, 9, 61-72. (In Persian).
55. Vealey R. S. (2007). Mental skills training in sport. In G. Tenenbaum & R. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (3rd ed) (pp. 287-309). New York: Wiley.
56. Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. Champaign: Human Kinetics Publishers.
57. Weinberg, R. S., Seabourne, T. G., & Jackson, A. (1981). Effects of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal, relaxation, and imagery on karate performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3, 228-38.
58. Weiss, M. R., & Bredemeier, B. J. (1983). Developmental sport psychology: A theoretical perspective for studying children in sport. Journal
of Sport Psychology, 5, 216–30.
59. Williams, A. M., & Elliott, D. (1999). Anxiety, expertise, and visual search strategy in karate. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 21, 362-75.
60. ww.iranwushufed.ir
61. Woodcock, C., Holland, J. G., Cumming, J., & Duda, J. L. (2011). Psychological qualities of elite adolescent Rugby players: Parents, coaches, and sport administration staff perceptions and supporting roles. The Sport Psychologist, 25, 411–43.
62. Zabukovec, R., & Tiidus, P. M. (1995). Physiological and anthropometric profile of elite kickboxers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 9, 240-2.
)