Sport Psychology Studies

Sport Psychology Studies

The effect of Gender Stereotype Threat on Women’s Long Jump Performance and Kinematics: Exploring the Role of External Attentional Focus

Document Type : Original research

Authors
Zainab Abasmanesh 1
Esmaeel Saemi 2
Mina Moradi 1
Maxime Deshayes 3
1 Department of Motor Behavior and Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
2 Department of Motor Behavior and Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran.
3 Nimes University, APSY-V, F-30021, Nîmes, Cedex 1, France.
10.22089/spsyj.2026.19130.2670
Abstract
Objective: The aim of this study was to examine the effects of gender stereotype threat induction and the use of an external focus of attention on performance and kinematics of the standing long jump in women.

Materrials and Methods: Forty-five non-athlete women performed the long jump in two phases. In the baseline phase, participants completed four jumps without receiving any specific instructions or experimental manipulation, and performance (jump distance) and kinematics (maximum knee flexion prior to take-off) were recorded. Participants were then randomly assigned to three groups: (1) gender stereotype threat induction, (2) gender stereotype threat induction combined with external focus instruction, and (3) a neutral condition. In the experimental phase, participants performed four jumps under their assigned conditions.

Results: The results of the linear mixed-effects model indicated that in the performance dimension, the main effects of experimental conditions and phases were significant (p < 0.05), but the interaction effect was not significant (p = 0.64), suggesting that gender stereotype threat and external focus did not significantly affect performance. In contrast, in the kinematic dimension, the interaction effect was significant (p = 0.03), and maximum knee flexion in the stereotype threat combined with external focus condition, as well as in the neutral condition, was significantly greater than in the stereotype threat condition.

Conclusion: The lack of performance differences may be due to task simplicity and the low skill level of participants. However, kinematic changes suggest that stereotype threat influenced movement patterns, while external focus may help mitigate its negative effects.
Keywords
Stereotype Threat
Kinematics
Standing Long Jump
External Focus of Attention
Knee Flexion
Subjects
1.       Amorose, A. J., & Anderson-Butcher, D. (2007, 2007/09/01/). Autonomy-supportive coaching and self-determined motivation in high school and college athletes: A test of self-determination theory. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8(5), 654-670. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.11.003
2.       Amorose, A. J., & Horn, T. S. (2000). Intrinsic motivation: Relationships with collegiate athletes’ gender, scholarship status, and perceptions of their coaches’ behavior. Sport & Exercise Psychology. 22 (1):  63-84. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1123/jsep.22.1.63
3.       Bartholomew, K. J., Ntoumanis, N., Ryan, R. M., Bosch, J. A., & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C. (2011, Nov). Self-determination theory and diminished functioning: the role of interpersonal control and psychological need thwarting. Pers Soc Psychol Bull, 37(11), 1459-1473. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211413125
4.       Bolger, L. E., Bolger, L. A., O’Neill, C., Coughlan, E., O’Brien, W., Lacey, S., Burns, C., & Bardid, F. (2021, 2021/04/03). Global levels of fundamental motor skills in children: A systematic review. Journal of Sports Sciences, 39(7), 717-753. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1841405
5.       Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen. & J. S. Long. (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). sage.
6.       Burkle, B. F., Chiviacowsky, S., Cardozo, P., & Drews, R. (2025, Dec 13). Conceptions of Ability Positive Feedback Affect the Learning of a Sport Motor Skill in Children of Different Ages. Res Q Exerc Sport, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2025.2586666
7.       Chelladurai, P. (1993). Leadership. In R. N. Singer, M. Murphey, & L. K. Murphey (Eds.), Handbook of research on sport psychology (pp. 647–671). Macmillan.
8.       Chelladurai, P. (2007). Leadership in sports. In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (3 ed., pp. 113–135). Wiley.
9.       Chelladurai, P., & Saleh, S. D. (1980). Dimensions of leader behavior in sports: Development of a leadership scale. Sport Psychology, 2(1), 34–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1123/jsp.2.1.34
10.   Cheon, S. H., Reeve, J., & Moon, I. S. (2012). Experimentally based, longitudinally designed, teacher-focused intervention to help physical education teachers be more autonomy supportive toward their students. Sport & Exercise Psychology, 34(3), 365–396. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1123/jsep.34.3.365
11.   Clark, J. E., & Metcalfe, J. S. (2002). The mountain of motor development: A metaphor. In J. E. Clark & J. H. Humphrey (Eds.), Motor development: Research and reviews (Vol. 2). NASPE Publications.
12.   Conroy, D. E., & Coatsworth, J. D. (2007, Sep). Assessing Autonomy-Supportive Coaching Strategies in Youth Sport. Psychol Sport Exerc, 8(5), 671-684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.12.001   
13.   Curran, T., Hill, A. P., Hall, H. K., & Jowett, G. E. (2015, Apr). Relationships between the coach-created motivational climate and athlete engagement in youth sport. J Sport Exerc Psychol, 37(2), 193-198. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2014-0203
14.  Davari, F., Khalilirad, S.S. Khodaee Semiromi, F. (2025). The effect of the Sport Stacking on visual perception and fine motor skills of mentally retarded students. Sport Psychology Studies, 14(51), 145-162. In Persian https://doi.org/10.22089/spsyj.2024.17023.2496
15.   de Bruijn, A. G. M., Mombarg, R., & Timmermans, A. C. (2022, 2022/07/04). The importance of satisfying children’s basic psychological needs in primary school physical education for PE-motivation, and its relations with fundamental motor and PE-related skills. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 27(4), 422-439. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2021.1906217
16.   Drews, R., Tani, G., Cardozo, P. L., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2020). Positive feedback praising good performance does not alter the learning of an intrinsically motivating task in 10-year-old children. European Journal of Human Movement, 45.
17.   Farshbaf, N. P. (2024). Investigating the effect of coaches' leadership styles on psychological capital and sports performance of student athletes. The 7th National Conference on Professional Research in Psychology and Counseling with Teacher Approach,  In Persian https://civilica.com/doc/2423966
18.   Fransen, K., Boen, F., Vansteenkiste, M., Mertens, N., & Vande Broek, G. (2018, Feb). The power of competence support: The impact of coaches and athlete leaders on intrinsic motivation and performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 28(2), 725-745. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12950
19.   Gallahue, D. L., Ozmun, J. C., & Goodway, J. (2012). Understanding Motor Development Infants, Children, Adolescents, Adults. McGraw-Hill, New York.
20.   Haerens, L., Aelterman, N., Vansteenkiste, M., Soenens, B., & Van Petegem, S. (2015). Do perceived autonomy-supportive and controlling teaching relate to physical education students' motivational experiences through unique pathways? Distinguishing between the bright and dark side of motivation. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 16, 36-26.
21.   Harter, S. (1978). Effectance motivation reconsidered: Toward a developmental model. Human Development, 21(1), 64-34. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1159/000271574
22.   Haywood, K. M., & Getchell, N. (2020). Life span motor development (7th ed). In. Human Kinetics.
23.   Horn, T. S. (2015). Coaching effectiveness in the sport domain. In R. E. Smith & F. L. Smoll (Eds.), Sport psychology for youth coaches: Developing champions in sports and life (2 ed., pp. 3–16). Rowman & Littlefield.
24.   Horn, T. S. (Ed.). (2008). Coaching effectiveness in the sport domain. (3 ed.). Human Kinetics.
25.   Hu, L. t., & Bentler, P. M .(1996). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
26.   Jahangiri, M., Sohrabi, M., & Parastar, F. (2014). Coach-created motivational climate, psychological needs, intrinsic motivation and continued sport participation among female adolescent athletes. Motor Behavior, 6(17), 171-184. In Persian https://www.magiran.com/paper/1357021
27.   Johnson, J. L., Carroll, A. V., Wadsworth, D. D., Sassi, J., Merritt, M., Morris, M., & Rudisill, M. E. (2023, Aug). Towards Identifying a Dosage Effect for Improving Fundamental Motor Skills of Preschool Children with a Mastery Motivational Climate Intervention. Percept Mot Skills, 130(4), 1453-1471. https://doi.org/10.1177/00315125231179591
28.   Khodaverdi, Z., Bahram, A., Stodden, D., & Kazemnejad, A. (2016, 2016/08/17). The relationship between actual motor competence and physical activity in children: mediating roles of perceived motor competence and health-related physical fitness. Journal of Sports Sciences, 34(16), 1523-1529. In Persian https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1122202
29.   Kipp, L. E., & Weiss, M. R. (2013). Social influences, psychological need satisfaction, and well-being among female adolescent gymnasts. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 2(1), 75-62.
30.   Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. In (4 ed.). Guilford.
31.   Kline, R. B. (2023). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (5 ed.). Guilford Press.
32.   Koka, A., & Hagger, M. S. (2010, 2010/03/01). Perceived Teaching Behaviors and Self-Determined Motivation in Physical Education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 81(1), 74-86. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2010.10599630
33.   Mageau, G. A., & Vallerand, R. J. (2003, 2003/11/01). The coach–athlete relationship: a motivational model. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21(11), 883-904. https://doi.org/10.1080/0264041031000140374
34.   Menescardi, C., De Meester, A., Álvarez, O., Castillo, I., Haerens, L., & Estevan, I. (2023, May). The mediational role of motivation in the model of motor development in childhood: A longitudinal study. Psychol Sport Exerc, 66, 102398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023102398
35.   Morano, M., Colella, D., & Caroli, M. (2011, Oct). Gross motor skill performance in a sample of overweight and non-overweight preschool children. Int J Pediatr Obes, 6 Suppl 2, 42-46. https://doi.org/10.3109/17477166.2011.613665
36.   Mosston, M., & Ashworth, S. (2008). Teaching physical education (6 ed.). Benjamin Cummings.
37.   Nazarpouri, S., Bahram, A., & Gadiri, F. (2018). Designing and Psychometric Properties of Children Movement Motivation Questioner (CMMQ) in 3 to 6 Years Children. Iranian Journal of Psychiatric Nursing, 6(1), 63-71. In Persian https://doi.org/doi.org/10.21859/ijpn-06018
38.   Nazarpouri, S., Doralp, S., Bahram, A., Sayarifard, A., & Haqqani, S. (2023). The relationship between motivation to move and the development of fundamental movement skills among urban and rural preschool children in Iran. Asian Journal of Sports Medicine, 14(4). In Persian https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5812/asjsm-123635
39.   Palmer, K. K., Nunu, M. A., Scott-Andrews, K. Q., & Robinson, L. E. (2021, Jun 3). Perceived Physical Competence Predicts Gains in Children's Locomotor but Not Ball Skills across an Intervention. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 18(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115990
40.   Pelletier, L. G., Fortier, M. S., Vallerand, R. J., & Briere, N. M. (2001). Associations among perceived autonomy support, forms of self-regulation, and persistence: A prospective study. Motivation and Emotion, 25(4), 1796-1789. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014805132406
41.   Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008, Aug). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behav Res Methods, 40(3), 879-891. https://doi.org/10.3758/brm.40.3.879
42.   Rahmani, A., Bahram, A., & Ahmadi, M. (2020). The status of fundamental motor skills in 4–6 year-old Iranian children: A national study. Motor Behavior, 12(4), 145-162. In Persian
43.   Rezaei, R., Bagheri, J. S., & Kargar, G. (2023). The relationship between leadership styles of wrestling coaches and success motivation of wrestlers of different age groups. Journal of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, 2(1), 24-39. In Persian https://www.magiran.com/paper/2585942
44.   Robinson, L. E., & Goodway, J. D. (2009). Instructional Climates in Preschool Children Who Are At-Risk. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 80(3), 533-542. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2009.10599591
45.   Robinson, L. E., Stodden, D. F., Barnett, L. M., Lopes, V. P., Logan, S. W., Rodrigues, L. P., & D'Hondt, E. (2015, Sep). Motor Competence and its Effect on Positive Developmental Trajectories of Health. Sports Med, 45(9), 1273-1284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0351-6
46.   Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Press.
47.   Safari Jafarloo, H. R., Afroozeh, M. S., Mohamadi Turkmani, E., & Behmard, N. (2021). The relationship between coaching behavior style, exercise pleasure and athletes' moral health. Sport Sciences and Health Research, 13(1), 53-60. In Persian https://doi.org/10.22059/sshr.2021.86146
48.   Schmutz, E. A., Leeger-Aschmann, C. S., Kakebeeke, T. H., Zysset, A. E., Messerli-Bürgy, N., Stülb, K., Arhab, A., Meyer, A. H., Munsch, S., Puder, J. J., Jenni, O. G., & Kriemler, S. (2020). Motor Competence and Physical Activity in Early Childhood: Stability and Relationship. Front Public Health, 8, 39. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00039
49.  Shams A., Hardy LL., Vameghi R., Loovis EM., Shamsipour Dehkordi P.  (2021). Prevalence of fundamental movement skill proficiency among Iranian children aged 2.5-14 years. J Sci Med Sport. 24(1):74-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2020.09.014
50.   Simpson, T., Ellison, P., Carnegie, E., & Marchant, D. (2021, 2021/01/01). A systematic review of motivational and attentional variables on children’s fundamental movement skill development: the OPTIMAL theory. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14(1), 312-358. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2020.1809007
51.   Smith, N., Quested, E., Appleton, P. R., & Duda, J. L. (2016,. (A review of observational instruments to assess the motivational environment in sport and physical education settings. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 9(1), 134-159. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2015.1132334
52.   Smith, R. E., & Smoll, F. L. (2007). Social-cognitive approach to coaching behaviors. In S. Jowett & D. Lavallee (Eds.), Social psychology in sport (pp. 75–90). Social psychology in sport.
53.   Stodden, D. F., Goodway, J. D., Langendorfer, S. J., Roberton, M. A., Rudisill, M. E., Garcia, C., & Garcia, L. E. (2008). A developmental perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical activity: An emergent relationship. Quest, 60(2), 290-306. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2008.10483582
54.   Torkfar, A., Davoudi, M., Najafitireh, A., & Shahian, M. (2024). The effect of coaches' leadership style on the success motivation and commitment of ISport children  in Shiraz  (from the parents' point of view) The second national conference of new researches in sports sciences,  In Persian https://civilica.com/doc/2168010
55.   Ulrich, D. A. (2019). Test of Gross Motor Development: Examiner's manual (3 ed.).
56.   van Aart, I., Hartman, E., Elferink-Gemser, M., Mombarg, R., & Visscher, C. (2017, 2017/01/02). Relations among basic psychological needs, PE-motivation and fundamental movement skills in 9–12-year-old boys and girls in Physical Education. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 22(1), 15-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2015.1112776
57.   Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016, Oct). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychon Bull Rev, 23(5), 1382-1414. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9
58. Zartoshtiyan, S., Noroziseyedhoseini, R., & Azadi, A. (2012). The Effect of Coache's Leadership Styles on Motivational Climate and Achievement Goals of Female Basketball Players of Premier League of Iran. Sport Management, 4(12), 179-. In Persian
Sport Psychology Studies
Volume 15, Issue 58
Autumn 2026
Pages 1-23

  • Receive Date 11 February 2026
  • Revise Date 17 April 2026
  • Accept Date 18 April 2026